Test 1

Question 1-8

With Robert Laurent and William Zorach, direct carving enters into the story of

modern sculpture in the United States. Direct carving □ in which the sculptors

themselves carve stone or wood with mallet and chisel □ must be recognized as

Line	something more than just a technique. Implicit in it is an aesthetic principle as well :

(5)	that the medium has certain qualities of beauty and expressiveness with which

sculptors must bring their own aesthetic sensibilities into harmony. For example,

sometimes the shape or veining in a piece of stone or wood suggests, perhaps even

dictates, not only the ultimate form, but even the subject matter.

The technique of direct carving was a break with the nineteenth-century tradition in

(10)	which the making of a clay model was considered the creative act and the work was

then turned over to studio assistants to be cast in plaster or bronze or carved in marble.	Neoclassical sculptors seldom held a mallet or chisel in their own hands, readily

conceding that the assistants they employed were far better than they were at carving

the finished marble.

(15)	With the turn-of-the-century Crafts movement and the discovery of nontraditional

sources of inspiration, such as wooden African figures and masks, there arose a new

urge for hands-on, personal execution of art and an interaction with the medium. Even

as early as the 1880's and 1890's, nonconformist European artists were attempting

direct carving. By the second decade of the twentieth century, Americans □ Laurent

(20)	and Zorach most notably □ had adopted it as their primary means of working.

Born in France, Robert Laurent(1890-1970)was a prodigy who received his

education in the United States. In 1905 he was sent to Paris as an apprentice to an art

dealer, and in the years that followed he witnessed the birth of Cubism, discovered

primitive art, and learned the techniques of woodcarving from a frame maker.

(25)	Back in New York City by 1910, Laurent began carving pieces such as The

Priestess, which reveals his fascination with African, pre-Columbian, and South

Pacific art. Taking a walnut plank, the sculptor carved the expressive, stylized design.

It is one of the earliest examples of direct carving in American sculpture. The plank's

form dictated the rigidly frontal view and the low relief. Even its irregular shape must

(30)	have appealed to Laurent as a break with a long-standing tradition that required a

sculptor to work within a perfect rectangle or square.

1. The word “medium”in line 5 could be used to refer to

(A) stone or wood

(B) mallet and chisel

(C) technique

(D) principle

2. What is one of the fundamental principles of direct carving?

(A) A sculptor must work with talented assistants.

(B) The subject of a sculpture should be derived from classical stories.

(C) The material is an important element in a sculpture.

(D) Designing a sculpture is a more creative activity than carving it.

3. The word “dictates” in line 8 is closest in meaning to

(A) reads aloud	(B) determines

(C) includes	(D) records

4. How does direct carving differ from the nineteenth-century tradition

of sculpture?

(A) Sculptors are personally involved in the carving of a piece.

(B) Sculptors find their inspiration in neoclassical sources.

(C) Sculptors have replaced the mallet and chisel with other tools.

(D) Sculptors receive more formal training.

5.The word “witnessed” in line 23 is closest in meaning to

(A) influenced

(B) studied

(C) validated

(D) observed

6. Where did Robert Laurent learn to carve?

(A) New York

(B) Africa

(C) The South Pacific

(D) Paris

7. The phrase “a break with ”in line 30 is closest in meaning to

(A) a destruction of

(B) a departure from

(C) a collapse of

(D) a solution to

8. The piece titled The Priestess has all of the following characteristics EXCEPT

(A) The design is stylized.

(B) It is made of marble.

(C) The carving is not deep.

(D) It depicts the front of a person.

Question 9 - 19

Birds that feed in flocks commonly retire together into roosts. The reasons for roosting	communally are not always obvious, but there are some likely benefits. In winter

especially, it is important for birds to keep warm at night and conserve precious food

Line	reserves. One way to do this is to find a sheltered roost. Solitary roosters shelter in

(5)	dense vegetation or enter a cavity - horned larks dig holes in the ground and

ptarmigan burrow into snow banks - but the effect of sheltering is magnified by

several birds huddling together in the roosts, as wrens, swifts, brown	creepers,

bluebirds, and anis do. Body contact reduces the surface area exposed to the cold air,

so the birds keep each other warm. Two kinglets huddling together were found to

(10)	reduce their heat losses by a quarter and three together saved a third of their heat.

The second possible benefit of communal roosts is that they act as “information	centers.” During the day, parties of birds will have spread out to forage over a very

large area. When they return in the evening some will have fed well, but others may

have found little to eat. Some investigators have observed that when the birds set out

(15)	again next morning, those birds that did not feed well on the previous day appear to

follow those that did. The behavior of common and lesser kestrels may illustrate

different feeding behaviors of similar birds with different roosting habits. The common

kestrel hunts vertebrate animals in a small, familiar hunting ground, whereas the very

similar lesser kestrel feeds on insects over a large area. The common kestrel roosts and

(20)	hunts alone, but the lesser kestrel roosts and hunts in flocks, possibly so one bird can

learn from others where to find insect swarms.

Finally, there is safety in numbers at communal roosts since there will always be a

few birds awake at any given moment to give the alarm. But this increased protection is

partially counteracted by the fact that mass roosts attract predators and are especially

(25)	vulnerable if they are on the ground. Even those in trees can be attacked by birds of

prey. The birds on the edge are at greatest risk since predators find it easier to catch

small birds perching at the margins of the roost.

9. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) How birds find and store food

(B) How birds maintain body heat in the winter

(C) Why birds need to establish territory

(D) Why some species of birds nest together

10. The word “conserve ”in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) retain

(B) watch

(C) locate

(D) share

11. Ptarmigan keep warm in the winter by

(A) huddling together on the ground with other birds

(B) building nests in trees

(C) burrowing into dense patches of vegetation

(D) digging tunnels into the snow

12. The word “magnified”in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(A) caused

(B) modified

(C) intensified

(D) combined

13. The author mentions kinglets in line 9 as an example of birds that

(A) protect themselves by nesting in holes

(B) nest with other species of birds

(C) nest together for warmth

(D) usually feed and nest in pairs

14. The word “forage”in line 12  is closest in meaning to

(A) fly

(B) assemble

(C) feed

(D) rest

15. Which of the following statements about lesser and common kestrels is true?

(A) The lesser kestrel and the common kestrel have similar diets.

(B) The lesser kestrel feeds sociably but the common kestrel does not.

(C) The common kestrel nests in larger flocks than does the lesser kestrel.

(D) The common kestrel nests in trees; the lesser kestrel nests on the ground.

16. The word “counteracted”in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) suggested

(B) negated

(C) measured

(D) shielded

17. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as an advantage derived

by birds that huddle together while sleeping?

(A) Some members of the flock warn others of impending dangers.

(B) Staying together provides a greater amount of heat for the whole flock

(C) Some birds in the flock function as information centers for others who are

looking for food.

(D) Several members of the flock care for the young.

18. Which of the following is a disadvantage of communal roosts that is mentioned in

the passage?

(A) Diseases easily spread among the birds.

(B) Groups are more attractive to predators than individual birds.

(C) Food supplies are quickly depleted.

(D) Some birds in the group will attack the others.

19. The word “they”in line 25 refers to

(A) a few birds	(B) mass roosts

(C) predators	(D) trees

Question 20 - 30

Before the mid-nineteenth century, people in the United States ate most foods only

in season. Drying, smoking, and salting could preserve meat for a short time, but the

availability of fresh meat, like that of fresh milk, was very limited; there was no	way to

Line	prevent spoilage. But in 1810 a French inventor named Nicolas Appert developed the

(5)	cooking-and-sealing process of canning. And in the 1850's an American named Gail

Borden developed a means of condensing and preserving milk. Canned goods and

condensed milk became more common during the 1860's, but supplies remained low

because cans had to be made by hand. By 1880, however, inventors had fashioned

stamping and soldering machines that mass-produced cans	from tinplate. Suddenly all

(10)	kinds of food could be preserved and bought at all times of the year.

Other trends and inventions had also helped make it possible for Americans to vary

their daily diets. Growing urban populations created demand that encouraged fruit and

vegetable farmers to raise more produce. Railroad refrigerator cars enabled growers

and meat packers to ship perishables great distances and to preserve them for longer

(15)	periods. Thus, by the 1890's, northern city dwellers could enjoy southern and western	strawberries, grapes, and tomatoes, previously available for a month at most, for up to

six months of the year. In addition, increased use of iceboxes enabled families to store	perishables. An easy means of producing ice commercially had been invented in the

1870's, and by 1900 the nation had more than two thousand commercial ice plants,

(20)	most of which made home deliveries. The icebox became a fixture in most homes and

remained so until the mechanized refrigerator replaced it in the 1920's and 1930's.

Almost everyone now had a more diversified diet. Some people continued to eat

mainly foods that were heavy in starches or carbohydrates, and not everyone could

afford meat. Nevertheless, many families could take advantage of previously

(25)	unavailable fruits, vegetables, and dairy products to achieve more varied fare.

20. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Causes of food spoilage

(B) Commercial production of ice

(C) Inventions that led to changes in the American diet

(D) Population movements in the nineteenth century

21. The phrase “in season” in line 2 refers to

(A) a kind of weather

(B) a particular time of year

(C) an official schedule

(D) a method of flavoring food

22. The word “prevent” in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) estimate

(B) avoid

(C) correct

(D) confine

23. During the 1860's, canned food products were

(A) unavailable in rural areas

(B) shipped in refrigerator cars

(C) available in limited quantities

(D) a staple part of the American diet

24. It can be inferred that railroad refrigerator cars came into use

(A) before 1860

(B) before 1890

(C) after 1900

(D) after 1920

25. The word “them ” in line 14 refers to

(A) refrigerator cars

(B) perishables

(C) growers

(D) distances

26. The word “fixture” in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(A) luxury item

(B) substance

(C) commonplace object

(D) mechanical device

27. The author implies that in the 1920's and 1930's home deliveries of ice

(A) decreased in number

(B) were on an irregular schedule

(C) increased in cost

(D) occurred only in the summer

28. The word “Nevertheless” in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) therefore

(B) because

(C) occasionally

(D) however

29. Which of the following types of food preservation was NOT mentioned in the passage?

(A) Drying

(B) Canning

(C) Cold storage

(D) Chemical additives

30. Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?

(A) Tin cans and iceboxes helped to make many foods more widely available.

(B) Commercial ice factories were developed by railroad owners.

(C) Most farmers in the United States raised only fruits and vegetables.

(D) People who lived in cities demanded home delivery of foods.

Question 31 - 38

The ability of falling cats to right themselves in midair and land on their feet has

been a source of wonder for ages. Biologists long regarded it as an example of

adaptation by natural selection, but for physicists it bordered on the miraculous.

Line	Newton's laws of motion assume that the total amount of spin of a body cannot change

(5)	unless an external torque speeds it up or slows it down. If a cat has no spin when it is

released and experiences no external torque, it ought not to be able to twist around as it

falls.

In the speed of its execution, the righting of a tumbling cat resembles a magician's

trick. The gyrations of the cat in midair are too fast for the human eye to follow, so the

(10)	process is obscured. Either the eye must be speeded up, or the cat's fall slowed down

for the phenomenon to be observed. A century ago the former was accomplished by

means of high-speed photography using equipment now available in any pharmacy.

But in the nineteenth century the capture on film of a falling cat constituted a scientific	experiment.

(15)	The experiment was described in a paper presented to the Paris Academy in 1894.

Two sequences of twenty photographs each, one from the side and one from behind,

show a white cat in the act of righting itself. Grainy and quaint though they are, the

photos show that the cat was dropped upside down, with no initial spin, and still landed

on its feet. Careful analysis of the photos reveals the secret ; As the cat rotates the front

(20)	of its body clockwise, the rear and tail twist counterclockwise, so that the total spin

remains zero, in perfect accord with Newton's laws. Halfway down, the cat pulls in its

legs before reversing its twist and then extends them again, with the desired end result.

The explanation was that while no body can acquire spin without torque, a flexible one

can readily change its orientation, or phase. Cats know this instinctively, but scientists

(25)	could not be sure how it happened until they increased the speed of their perceptions a	thousandfold.

31. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The explanation of an interesting phenomenon

(B) Miracles in modern science

(C) Procedures in scientific investigation

(D) The differences between biology and physics

32. The word “process”in line 10 refers to

(A) the righting of a tumbling cat

(B) the cat's fall slowed down

(C) high-speed photography

(D) a scientific experiment

33. Why are the photographs mentioned in line 16 referred to as an “experiment”?

(A) The photographs were not very clear.

(B) The purpose of the photographs was to explain the process.

(C) The photographer used inferior equipment.

(D) The photographer thought the cat might be injured.

34. Which of the following can be inferred about high-speed photography in

the late 1800's ?

(A) It was a relatively new technology.

(B) The necessary equipment was easy to obtain.

(C) The resulting photographs are difficult to interpret.

(D) It was not fast enough to provide new information.

35. The word “rotates” in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) drops

(B) turns

(C) controls

(D) touches

36. According to the passage, a cat is able to right itself in midair because it is

(A) frightened

(B) small

(C) intelligent

(D) flexible

37. The word “readily”in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) only

(B) easily

(C) slowly

(D) certainly

38. How did scientists increase “the speed of their perceptions a

thousandfold”(lines 25-26)?

(A) By analyzing photographs

(B) By observing a white cat in a dark room

(C) By dropping a cat from a greater height

(D) By studying Newton's laws of motion

Question 39 - 50

The changing profile of a city in the United States is apparent in the shifting

definitions used by the United States Bureau of the Census. In 1870 the census

officially distinguished the nation's “urban” from its “rural” population for the first

Line	time. “Urban population” was defined as persons living in towns of 8,000 inhabitants

(5)	or more. But after 1900 it meant persons living in incorporated places having 2,500 or

more inhabitants.

Then, in 1950 the Census Bureau radically changed its definition of “urban” to take

account of the new vagueness of city boundaries. In addition to persons living in	incorporated units of 2,500 or more, the census now included those who lived in

(10)	unincorporated units of that size, and also all persons living in the densely settled urban

fringe, including both incorporated and unincorporated areas located around cities of

50,000 inhabitants or more. Each such unit, conceived as an integrated economic and

social unit with a large population nucleus, was named a Standard Metropolitan

Statistical Area (SMSA).

(15)	Each SMSA would contain at least (a) one central city with 50,000 inhabitants or

more or (b) two cities having shared boundaries and constituting, for general economic

and social purposes, a single community with a combined population of at least 50,000,

the smaller of which must have a population of at least 15,000. Such an area included

the county in which the central city is located, and adjacent counties that are found to

(20)	be metropolitan in character and economically and socially integrated with the county

of the central city. By 1970, about two-thirds of the population of the United States was

living in these urbanized areas, and of that figure more than half were living outside the

central cities.

While the Census Bureau and the United States government used the term SMSA

(25)	(by 1969 there were 233 of them), social scientists were also using new terms to

describe the elusive, vaguely defined areas reaching out from what used to be simple	“towns” and “cities”. A host of terms came into use : “metropolitan regions,”

“polynucleated population groups,” “conurbations,” “metropolitan clusters,”

“megalopolises,” and so on.

39. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) How cities in the United States began and developed

(B) Solutions to overcrowding in cities

(C) The changing definition of an urban area

(D) How the United States Census Bureau conducts a census

40. According to the passage, the population of the United States was

first classified as rural or urban in

(A) 1870

(B) 1900

(C) 1950

(D) 1970

41. The word “distinguished”in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) differentiated	(B) removed

(C) honored	(D) protected

42. Prior to 1900, how many inhabitants would a town have to have before being	defined as urban?

(A) 2,500

(B) 8,000

(C) 15,000

(D) 50,000

43. According to the passage, why did the Census Bureau revise the definition

of urban in 1950?

(A) City borders had become less distinct.

(B) Cities had undergone radical social change.

(C) Elected officials could not agree on an acceptable definition.

(D) New businesses had relocated to larger cities.

44. The word “those”in line 9 refers to

(A) boundaries

(B) persons

(C) units

(D) areas

45. The word “constituting” in line 16 is closest in meaning to

(A) located near

(B) determined by

(C) calling for

(D) making up

46. The word “which ” in line 18 refers to a smaller

(A) population	(B) city

(C) character	(D) figure

47. Which of the following is NOT true of an SMSA?

(A) It has a population of at least 50,000

(B) It can include a city's outlying regions.

(C) It can include unincorporated regions.

(D) It consists of at least two cities.

48. By 1970, what proportion of the population in the United States did NOT live in

an SMSA?

(A) 3/4	(B) 2/3	(C) 1/2	(D) 1/3

49. The Census Bureau first used the term “SMSA” in

(A) 1900	(B) 1950	(C) 1969        (D) 1970

50. Where in the passage does the author mention names used by social scientists for

an urban area?

(A) Lines 4-5	(B) Line 7-8	(C) Line 21-23	(D) Line 27-29

Test 2

Question 1 - 8

It is commonly believed in the United States that school is where people go to get an

education. Nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education

to go to school. The distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark

Line	is important.

(5)	Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling. Education

knows no bounds. It can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or on the job,

whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. It includes both the formal learning that takes place

in schools and the whole universe of informal learning. The agents of education can

range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a

(10)	child to a distinguished scientist. Whereas schooling has a certain predictability,

education quite often produces surprises. A chance conversation with a stranger may

lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions. People are engaged in

education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term. It is a

lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that

(15)	should be an integral part of one's entire life.

Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general

pattern varies little from one setting to the next. Throughout a country, children arrive

at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult,

use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on. The slices of reality that

(20)	are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the workings of	government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught.

For example, high school students know that they are not likely to find out in their

classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest

filmmakers are experimenting with. There are definite conditions surrounding the

(25)	formalized process of schooling.

1. What does the author probably mean by using the expression “children interrupt

their education to go to school” (lines 2-3) ?

(A) Going to several different schools is educationally beneficial.

(B) School vacations interrupt the continuity of the school year.

(C) Summer school makes the school year too long.

(D) All of life is an education.

2. The word “bounds”in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(A) rules

(B) experience

(C) limits

(D) exceptions

3. The word “chance” in line 11 is closest in meaning to

(A) unplanned

(B) unusual

(C) lengthy

(D) lively

4. The word “an integral” in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) an equitable

(B) a profitable

(C) a pleasant

(D) an essential

5. The word “they” in line 20 refers to

(A) slices of reality

(B) similar textbooks

(C) boundaries

(D) seats

6. The phrase “For example,” line 22, introduces a sentence that gives

examples of

(A) similar textbooks

(B) the results of schooling

(C) the workings of a government

(D) the boundaries of classroom subjects

7. The passage supports which of the followng conclusions?

(A) Without formal education, people would remain ignorant.

(B) Education systems need to be radically reformed.

(C) Going to school is only part of how people become educated.

(D) Education involves many years of professional training.

8. The passage is organized by

(A) listing and discussing several educational problems

(B) contrasting the meanings of two related words

(C) narrating a story about excellent teachers

(D) giving examples of different kinds of schools

Question 9-17

The hard, rigid plates that form the outermost portion of the Earth are about 100

kilometers thick. These plates include both the Earth's crust and the upper mantle.

The rocks of the crust are composed mostly of minerals with light elements, like

Line	aluminum and sodium, while the mantle contains some heavier elements, like iron and

(5)	magnesium. Together, the crust and upper mantle that form the surface plates are called

the lithosphere. This rigid layer floats on the denser material of the lower mantle the

way a wooden raft floats on a pond. The plates are supported by a weak, plastic layer

of the lower mantle called the asthenosphere. Also like a raft on a pond, the

lithospheric plates are carried along by slow currents in this more fluid layer beneath

(10)	them.

With an understanding of plate tectonics, geologists have put together a new history

for the Earth's surface. About 200 million years ago, the plates at the Earth's surface

formed a “supercontinent” called Pangaea. When this supercontinent started to tear

apart because of plate movement, Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses

(15)	with a newly formed sea that grew between the land areas as the depression filled with

water. The southern one □ which included the modern continents of South America,

Africa, Australia, and Antarctica □ is called Gondwanaland. The northern one □ with

North America, Europe, and Asia □ is called Laurasia. North America tore away from

Europe about 180 million years ago, forming the northern Atlantic Ocean.

(20)	Some of the lithospheric plates carry ocean floor and others carry land masses or a	combination of the two types. The movement of the lithospheric plates is responsible

for earthquakes, volcanoes, and the Earth's largest mountain ranges.	Current

understanding of the interaction between different plates explains why these occur

where they do. For example, the edge of the Pacific Ocean has been called the “Ring

(25)	of Fire” because so many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes happen there. Before the

1960's, geologists could not explain why active volcanoes and strong earthquakes

were concentrated in that region. The theory of plate tectonics gave them an answer.

9. With which of the following topics is the passage mainly concerned?

(A) The contributions of the theory of plate tectonics to geological knowledge

(B) The mineral composition of the Earth's crust

(C) The location of the Earth's major plates

(D) The methods used by scientists to measure plate movement

10. According to the passage, the lithospheric plates are given support by the

(A) upper mantle

(B) ocean floor

(C) crust

(D) asthenosphere

11. The author compares the relationship between the lithosphere and the

asthenosphere to which of the following?

(A) Lava flowing from a volcano

(B) A boat floating on the water

(C) A fish swimming in a pond

(D) The erosion of rocks by running water

12. The word“one”in line 16 refers to

(A) movements

(B) masses

(C) sea

(D) depression

13. According to the passage, the northern Atlantic Ocean was formed when

(A) Pangaea was created

(B) plate movement ceased

(C) Gondwanaland collided with Pangaea

(D) parts of Laurasia separated from each other

14. The word “carry” in line 20 could best be replaced by

(A) damage

(B) squeeze

(C) connect

(D) support

15. In line 27, the word “concentrated” is closest in meaning to which of the following?

(A) Allowed

(B) Clustered

(C) Exploded

(D) Strengthened

16. Which of the following can be inferred about the theory of plate tectonics?

(A) It is no longer of great interest to geologists.

(B) It was first proposed in the 1960's.

(C) It fails to explain why earthquakes occur.

(D) It refutes the theory of the existence of a supercontinent.

17. The paragraph following the passage most probably discusses

(A) why certain geological events happen where they do

(B) how geological occurrences have changed over the years

(C) the most unusual geological developments in the Earth's history

(D) the latest innovations in geological measurement

Question18-27

In the United States in the early 1800's, individual state governments had more

effect on the economy than did the federal government. States chartered

manufacturing, banking, mining, and transportation firms and participated in the

Line	construction of various internal improvements such as canals, turnpikes, and railroads.

(5)	The states encouraged internal improvements in two distinct ways ; first, by actually	establishing state companies to build such improvement ; second, by providing part of

the capital for mixed public-private companies setting out to make a profit.

In the early nineteenth century, state governments also engaged in a surprisingly

large amount of direct regulatory activity, including extensive licensing and inspection

(10)	programs. Licensing targets reflected both similarities in and differences between the

economy of the nineteenth century and that of today : in the nineteenth century, state

regulation through licensing fell especially on peddlers, innkeepers, and retail

merchants of various kinds. The perishable commodities of trade generally came under

state inspection, and such important frontier staples as lumber and gunpowder were

(15)	also subject to state control. Finally, state governments experimented with direct labor

and business regulation designed to help the individual laborer or consumer, including

setting maximum limits on hours of work and restrictions on price-fixing by businesses.

Although the states dominated economic activity during this period, the federal

government was not inactive. Its goals were the facilitation of western settlement and

(20)	the development of native industries. Toward these ends the federal government

pursued several courses of action. It established a national bank to stabilize banking

activities in the country and, in part, to provide a supply of relatively easy money to the

frontier, where it was greatly needed for settlement. It permitted access to public

western lands on increasingly easy terms, culminating in the Homestead Act of 1862,

(25)	by which title to land could be claimed on the basis of residence alone. Finally, it set up

a system of tariffs that was basically protectionist in effect, although maneuvering for

position by various regional interests produced frequent changes in tariff rates

throughout the nineteenth century.

18. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) States's rights versus federal rights

(B) The participation of state governments in railroad, canal, and

turnpike construction

(C) The roles of state and federal governments in the economy

of the nineteenth century

(D) Regulatory activity by state governments

19. The word “effect” in line 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) value

(B) argument

(C) influence

(D) restraint

20. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as areas that involved state	governments in the nineteenth century EXCEPT

(A) mining	(B) banking

(C) manufacturing	(D) higher education

21. The word “distinct” in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) separate

(B) innovative

(C) alarming

(D) provocative

22. It can be inferred from the first paragraph that in the nineteenth century canals

and railroads were

(A) built with money that came from the federal government

(B) much more expensive to build than they had been previously

(C) built predominantly in the western part of the country

(D) sometimes built in part by state companies

23. The regulatory activities of state governments included all of the following EXCEPT

(A) licensing of retail merchants

(B) inspecting materials used in turnpike maintenance

(C) imposing limits on price-fixing

(D) control of lumber

24. The word “setting” in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) discussing

(B) analyzing

(C) establishing

(D) avoiding

25. The word “ends” in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(A) benefits

(B) decisions

(C) services

(D) goals

26. According to the passage, which of the following is true of the Homestead

Act of 1862 ?

(A) It made it increasingly possible for settlers to obtain land in the West.

(B) It was a law first passed by state governments in the West.

(C) It increased the money supply in the West.

(D) It established tariffs in a number of regions.

27. Which of the following activities was the responsibility of the federal government

in the nineteenth century?

(A) Control of the manufacture of gunpowder

(B) Determining the conditions under which individuals worked

(C) Regulation of the supply of money

(D) Inspection of new homes built on western lands

Question 28-37

Life originated in the early seas less than a billion years after Earth was formed.

Yet another three billion years were to pass before the first plants and animals	appeared

on the continents. Life's transition from the sea to the land was perhaps as much of an

Line	evolutionary challenge as was the genesis of life.

(5)	What forms of life were able to make such a drastic change in lifestyle ? The

traditional view of the first terrestrial organisms is based on megafossils □ relatively

large specimens of essentially whole plants and animals. Vascular plants, related to

modern seed plants and ferns, left the first comprehensive megafossil record. Because

of this, it has been commonly assumed that the sequence of terrestrialization reflected

(10)	the evolution of modern terrestrial ecosystems. In this view, primitive vascular plants

first colonized the margins of continental waters, followed by animals that fed on the

plants, and lastly by animals that preyed on the plant-eaters. Moreover, the megafossils

suggest that terrestrial life appeared and diversified explosively near the boundary

between the Silurian and the Devonian periods, a little more than 400 million

(15)	years ago.

Recently, however, paleontologists have been taking a closer look at the sediments

below this Silurian-Devonian geological boundary. It turns out that some fossils can be

extracted from these sediments by putting the rocks in an acid bath.	The technique has

uncovered new evidence from sediments that were deposited near the shores of the

(20)	ancient oceans □ plant microfossils and microscopic pieces of small animals. In many

instances the specimens are less than one-tenth of a millimeter in diameter. Although

they were entombed in the rocks for hundreds of millions of years, many of the fossils

consist of the organic remains of the organism.

These newly discovered fossils have not only revealed the existence of previously

(25)	unknown organisms, but have also pushed back these dates for the invasion of land by

multicellular organisms. Our views about the nature of the early plant and animal	communities are now being revised. And with those revisions come new speculations

about the first terrestrial life-forms.

28. The word “drastic” in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) widespread

(B) radical

(C) progressive

(D) risky

29. According to the theory that the author calls “the traditional view,” what was the

first form of life to appear on land?

(A) Bacteria

(B) Meat-eating animals

(C) Plant-eating animals

(D) Vascular plants

30. According to the passage, what happened about 400 million years ago?

(A) Many terrestrial life-forms died out.

(B) New life-forms on land developed at a rapid rate.

(C) The megafossils were destroyed by floods.

(D) Life began to develop in the ancient seas.

31. The word “extracted” in line 18 is closest in meaning to

(A) located

(B) preserved

(C) removed

(D) studied

32. What can be inferred from the passage about the fossils mentioned in lines 17-20 ?

(A) They have not been helpful in understanding the evolution of terrestrial life.

(B) They were found in approximately the same numbers as vascular plant fossils.

(C) They are older than the megafossils.

(D) They consist of modern life-forms.

33. The word “instances” in line 21 is closest in meaning to

(A) methods

(B) processes

(C) cases

(D) reasons

34. The word “they” in line 22 refers to

(A) rocks

(B) shores

(C) oceans

(D) specimens

35. The word “entombed” in lime 22 is closest in meaning to

(A) crushed

(B) trapped

(C) produced

(D) excavated

36. Which of the following resulted from the discovery of microscopic fossils?

(A) The time estimate for the first appearance of terrestrial life-forms was revised.

(B) Old techniques for analyzing fossils were found to have new uses.

(C) The origins of primitive sea life were explained.

(D) Assumptions about the locations of ancient seas were changed.

37. With which of the following conclusions would the author probably agree?

(A) The evolution of terrestrial life was as complicated as the origin of

life itself.

(B) The discovery of microfossils supports the traditional view of how terrestrial

life evolved.

(C) New species have appeared at the same rate over the course of the last

400 million years.

(D) The technology used by paleontologists is too primitive to make accurate

determinations about ages of fossils.

Questions 38-50

What we today call American folk art was, indeed, art of, by, and for ordinary,

everyday “folks” who, with increasing prosperity and leisure, created a market for art

of all kinds, and especially for portraits. Citizens of prosperous, essentially

Line	middle-class republics □ whether ancient Romans, seventeenth-century Dutch

(5)	burghers, or nineteenth-century Americans □ have always shown a marked taste for

portraiture. Starting in the late eighteenth century, the United States contained

increasing numbers of such people, and of the artists who could meet their demands.

The earliest American folk art portraits come, not surprisingly, from New	England □ especially Connecticut and Massachusetts □ for this was a wealthy and

(10)	populous region and the center of a strong craft tradition. Within a few decades after

the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, the population was pushing

westward, and portrait painters could be found at work in western New York, Ohio,

Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri. Midway through its first century as a nation, the

United States's population had increased roughly five times, and eleven new states had

(15)	been added to the original thirteen. During these years the demand for portraits grew

and grew eventually to be satisfied by the camera. In 1839 the daguerreotype was

introduced to America, ushering in the age of photography, and within a generation the

new invention put an end to the popularity of painted portraits. Once	again an original

portrait became a luxury, commissioned by the wealthy and executed by the

(20)	professional.

But in the heyday of portrait painting □ from the late eighteenth century until the

1850's □ anyone with a modicum of artistic ability could become a limner, as such a

portraitist was called. Local craftspeople □ sign, coach, and house painters □ began to

paint portraits as a profitable sideline ; sometimes a talented man or woman who began

(25)	by sketching family members gained a local reputation and was besieged with requests

for portraits ; artists found it worth their while to pack their paints, canvases, and

brushes and to travel the countryside, often combining house decorating with portrait

painting.

38. In lines 4-5 the author mentions seventeenth-century Dutch burghers as an	example of a group that

(A) consisted mainly of self-taught artists

(B) appreciated portraits

(C) influenced American folk art

(D) had little time for the arts

39. The word “marked”in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) pronounced

(B) fortunate

(C) understandable

(D) mysterious

40. According to the passage, where were many of the first American

folk art portraits painted?

(A) In western New York

(B) In Illinois and Missouri

(C) In Connecticut and Massachusetts

(D) In Ohio

41. The word “this”in line 9 refer to

(A) a strong craft tradition

(B) American folk art

(C) New England

(D) western New York

42. How much did the population of the United States increase in the first fifty years

following independence?

(A) It became three times larger.

(B) It became five times larger.

(C) It became eleven times larger.

(D) It became thirteen times larger.

43. The phrase “ushering in”in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) beginning	(B) demanding

(C) publishing	(D) increasing

44. The relationship between the daguerreotype(line 16)and the painted portrait is

similar to the relationship between the automobile and the

(A) highway	(B) driver	(C) horse-drawn carriage   (D) engine

45. According to the passage, which of the following contributed to a decline in the demand

for painted portrait?

(A) The lack of a strong craft tradition

(B) The westward migration of many painters

(C) The growing preference for landscape paintings

(D) The invention of the camera

46. The word “executed” in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) sold	(B) requested

(C) admired	(D) created

47. The author implies that most limners (line 22)

(A) received instruction from traveling teachers

(B) were women

(C) were from wealthy families

(D) had no formal art training

48. The word “sketching” in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) drawing	(B) hiring

(C) helping	(D) discussing

49. Where in the passage does the author provide a definition?

(A) Lines 3-6	(B) Lines 8-10

(C) Lines 13-15              (D) Lines 21-23

50. The phrase “worth their while”in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) essential	(B) educational

(C) profitable	(D) pleasurable

Test 3

Questions 1-10

Around the year 1500, hunting people occupied the entire northern third of North

America. They lived well from the animals with whom they shared these lands. Hunters

of sea mammals had colonized the Arctic coasts of Canada and Greenland between

Line	four and five thousand years before. Land-hunting people had lived throughout much

(5)	of the northern interior for at least 12,000 years.

Northern North America is part of a larger circumpolar ecological domain that

continues across the narrow Bering Strait into Siberia and northern Europe. The overall

circumpolar environment in the 1500's was not very different from the environment of

the present. This vast landmass had a continental climate and was dominated by cold

(10)	arctic air throughout a long winter and spring season. Summer temperature ranged

from near freezing to the mid-20's Celsius, while winter temperature were often as

low as 40 degrees below zero Celsius.

Geographers divide the overall circumpolar domain into two zones, the Arctic and,

below it, the Subarctic. They refer to the landforms of these areas as tundra and taiga,

(15)	respectively.

Temperatures in the northern lands were below freezing for eight or nine months of

the year. Subsurface soil in the Arctic's tundra remained permanently frozen. Even

when summer temperatures were above freezing and the top inches of earth became

saturated with water, the soil below remained frozen into a permafrost, as hard as rock.

(20)	When water flowed upon the surface of permanently frozen tundra, it made overland

travel extremely difficult. Summer travel in the boggy lands, or muskeg country, of the

Subarctic's taiga was also slow and arduous. Tracking animals was more difficult than

it was during the winter when the swampy ground was frozen solid and covered with

snow. In both tundra and taiga, hordes of mosquitoes and biting flies bred in the

(25)	standing pools of water. Clothing lost its thermal efficiency when it became damp.

Northern people looked forward to the turn of the season to bring the easier traveling

conditions associated with cold weather. In the Arctic, they could haul food and

supplies by dogsled while in the Subarctic, people could travel quickly and efficiently

by snowshoes and toboggan.

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The hunting people of North America

(B) The circumpolar environment of the sixteenth century

(C) Animals that inhabit the Arctic coast

(D) The geography of Canada and Greenland

2. The word “domain”in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(A) temperature

(B) period

(C) region

(D) process

3. Which of the following terms is used to describe the landforms

of the Arctic region?

(A) Subarctic

(B) Taiga

(C) Tundra

(D) Muskeg

4. For how many months of the year were temperatures below freezing

in the circumpolar region?

(A) 4-5 months	(B) 6 months

(C) 8-9 months	(D) 12 months

5. The word “saturated”in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) enriched	(B) dissolved

(C) removed	(D) soaked

6. The word “arduous”in line 22 is closest in meaning to

(A) humid	(B) difficult

(C) indirect	(D) unnecessary

7. The word “standing”in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) not flowing                       (B) very deep

(C) numerous	(D) contaminated

8. All of the following are mentioned as having made travel in the summer

difficult EXCEPT

(A) insects	(B) wet clothing

(C) swampy lands                    (D) lack of supplies

9. The subsurface soil in the Arctic's tundra is most comparable to which

of the following?

(A) Cement	(B) A bog

(C) A pond	(D) Sand

10. Where in the passage does the author mention a means by which

people traveled in the northern lands?

(A) Lines 2-4

(B) Lines 6-7

(C) Lines 20-21

(D) Lines 27-29

Question 11-20

Social parasitism involves one species relying on another to raise its young. Among

vertebrates, the best known social parasites are such birds as cuckoos and cowbirds; the

female lays egg in a nest belonging to another species and leaves it for the host to

Line	rear.

(5)	The dulotic species of ants, however, are the supreme social parasites. Consider, for

example, the unusual behavior of ants belonging to the genus Polyergus. All species of

this ant have lost the ability to care for themselves. The workers do not forage for food,

feed their brood or queen, or even clean their own nest. To compensate for these

deficits, Polyergus has become specialized at obtaining workers from the related genus

(10)	Formica to do these chores.

In a raid, several thousand Polyergus workers will travel up to 500 feet in search of

a Formica nest, penetrate it, drive off the queen and her workers, capture the pupal

brood, and transport it back to their nest. The captured brood is then reared by the

resident Formica workers until the developing pupae emerge to add to the Formica

(15)	population, which maintains the mixed-species nest. The Formica workers forage for

food and give it to colony members of both species. They also remove wastes and

excavate new chambers as the population increases.

The true extent of the Polyergus ants' dependence on the Formica becomes apparent

when the worker population grows too large for existing nest. Formica scouts locate

(20)	a new nesting site, return to the mixed-species colony, and recruit additional Formica

nest mates. During a period that may last seven days, the Formica workers carry to the

new nest all the Polyergus eggs, larvae, and pupae, every Polyergus adult, and even the

Polyergus queen.

Of the approximately 8,000 species of ants in the world, all 5 species of Polyergus

(25)	and some 200 species in other genera have evolved some degree of parasitic

relationship with other ants.

11. Which of the following statements best represents the main idea of the passage?

(A) Ants belonging to the genus Formica are incapable of performing certain tasks.

(B) The genus Polyergus is quite similar to the genus Formica.

(C) Ants belonging to the genus Polyergus have an unusual relationship with ants

belonging to the genus Formica.

(D) Poltergus ants frequently leave their nests to build new colonies.

12. The word “raise”in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) rear

(B) lift

(C) collect

(D) increase

13. The author mentions cuckoos and cowbirds in line 2 because they

(A) share their nests with each other

(B) are closely related species

(C) raise the young of their birds

(D) are social parasites

14. The word “it”in line 3 refers to

(A) species

(B) nest

(C) egg

(D) female

15. What does the author mean by stating that“The dulotic species of ants...are the

supreme social parasites”(line5) ?

(A) The Polyergus are more highly developed than the Formica.

(B) The Formica have developed specialized roles.

(C) The Polyergus are heavily dependent on the Formica.

(D) The Formica do not reproduce rapidly enough to care for themselves.

16. Which of the following is a task that an ant of the genus Polyergus might do?

(A) Look for food.

(B) Raid another nest.

(C) Care for the young.

(D) Clean its own nest.

17. The word “excavate”in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) find

(B) clean

(C) repair

(D) dig

18. The word “recruit”in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(A) create

(B) enlist

(C) endure

(D) capture

19. What happens when a mixed colony of Polyergus and Formica ants

becomes too large?

(A) The Polyergus workers enlarge the existing nest.

(B) The captured Formica workers return to their original nest.

(C) The Polyergus and the Formica build separate nests.

(D) The Polyergus and the Formica move to a new nest.

20. According to the information in the passage, all of the following terms

refer to ants belonging to the genus Formica EXCEPT the

(A) dulotic species of ants (line 5)

(B) captured brood (line 13)

(C) developing pupae (line 14)

(D) worker population (line 19)

Question 21-30

The Winterthur Museum is a collection and a house. There are many museums

devoted to the decorative arts and many house museums, but rarely in the United States

is a great collection displayed in a great country house. Passing through successive

Line	generations of a single family, Winterthur has been a private estate for more than a

(5)	century. Even after the extensive renovations made to it between 1929 and 1931, the

house remained a family residence. This fact is of importance to the atmosphere and

effect of the museum. The impression of a lived-in house is apparent to the visitor; the

rooms look as if they were vacated only a short while ago □ whether by the original

owners of the furniture of the most recent residents of the house can be a matter of

(10)	personal interpretation. Winterthur remains, then, a house in which a collection of

furniture and architectural elements has been assembled. Like an English country

house, it is an organic structure; the house, as well as the collection and manner of

displaying it to the visitor, has changed over the years. The changes have coincided

with developing concepts of the American arts, increased knowledge on the part of

(15)	collectors and students, and a progression toward the achievement of a historical effect

in period-room displays. The rooms at Winterthur have followed this current, yet still

retained the character of a private house.

The concept of a period room as a display technique has developed gradually over

the years in an effort to present works of art in a context that would show them to

(20)	grater effect and would give them more meaning for the viewer. Comparable to the

habitat group in a natural history museum, the period room represents the decorative

arts in a lively and interesting manner and provides an opportunity to assemble objects

related by style, date, or place of manufacture.

21. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The reason that Winterthur was redesigned

(B) Elements that make Winterthur an unusual museum

(C) How Winterthur compares to English country houses

(D) Historical furniture contained in Winterthur

22. The phrase “devoted to”in line 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) surrounded by

(B) specializing in

(C) successful with

(D) sentimental about

23. What happened at Winterthur between 1929 and 1931 ?

(A) The owners moved out.

(B) The house was repaired.

(C) The old furniture was replaced.

(D) The estate became a museum.

24. What does the author mean by stating “The impression of a lived-in

house is apparent to the visitor”(line 7) ?

(A) Winterthur is very old.

(B) Few people visit Winterthur.

(C) Winterthur does not look like a typical museum.

(D) The furniture at Winterthur looks comfortable

25. The word “assembled”in line 11 is closest in meaning to

(A) summoned

(B) appreciated

(C) brought together

(D) fundamentally changed

26. The word “it”in line 12 refers to

(A) Winterthur

(B) collection

(C) English country house

(D) visitor

27. The word “developing”in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) traditional

(B) exhibiting

(C) informative

(D) evolving

28. According to the passage, objects in a period room are related by all of the

following EXCEPT

(A) date

(B) style

(C) place of manufacture

(D) past ownership

29. What si the relationship between the two paragraphs in the passage?

(A) The second paragraph explains a term that was mentioned in the

first paragraph.

(B) Each paragraph describes a dafferent approach to the display of

objects in a museum.

(C) The second paragraph of explains a philosophy art appreciation that

contrasts with the philosophy explained in the first paragraph.

(D) Each paragraph describes a different historical period.

30. Where is the passage does the author explain why displays at Winterthur have

changed?

(A) Lines 1-3

(B) Lines 5-6

(C) Lines 7-10

(D) Lines 13-16

Questions 31-40

The modern comic strip started out as ammunition in a newspaper war between

giants of the American press in the late nineteenth century. The first full-color comic

strip appeared January 1894 in the New York World, owned by Joseph Pulitzer. The

Line	first regular weekly full-color comic supplement, similar to today's Sunday funnies,

(5)	appeared two years later, in William Randolph Hearst's rival New York paper, the

Morning Journal.

Both were immensely popular, and publishers realized that supplementing the news

with comic relief boosted the sale of papers. The Morning Journal started another

feature in 1896, the "Yellow Kid," the first continuous comic character in the United

(10)	States, whose creator, Richard Outcault, had been lured away from the World by the

ambitious Hearst. The "Yellow Kid" was in many ways a pioneer. Its comic dialogue

was the strictly urban farce that came to characterize later strips, and it introduced the

speech ballon inside the strip, usually placed above the characters' heads.

The first strip to incorporate all the elements of later comics was Rudolph Dirks's

(15)	"Katzenjammer Kids," based on Wilhelm Busch's Max and Moritz, a European satire

of the nineteenth century. The "Kids" strip, first published in 1897, served as the

prototype for future American strips. It contained not only speech balloons, but a

continuous cast of characters, and was divided into small regular panels that did away

with the larger panoramic scenes of most earlier comics.

(20)	Newspaper syndication played a major role in spreading the popularity of comic

strips throughout the country. Though weekly colored comics came first, daily black-

and-white strips were not far behind. The first appeared in the Chicago American in

1904. It was followed by many imitators, and by 1915 black-and-white comic strips

had become a staple of daily newspapers around the country.

31. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) A comparison of two popular comic strips

(B) The differences between early and modern comic strips

(C) The effects of newspapers on comic strip stories

(D) Features of early comic strips in the United States

32. Why does the author mention Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Heart?

(A) They established New York's first newspaper.

(B) They published comic strips about the newspaper war.

(C) Their comic strips are still published today.

(D) They owned major competitive newspapers.

33. The passage suggests that comic strips were popular for which of the

following reasons?

(A) They provided a break from serious news stories.

(B) Readers enjoyed the unusual drawings.

(C) Readers could identify with the characters

(D) They were about real-life situations.

34. To say that Richard Outcault had been“lured away from”the World by

Heart (line10) means which of the following?

(A) Hearst convinced Outcault to leave the World.

(B) Hearst fired Outcault from the World.

(C) Hearst warned Outcault not to leave the World.

(D) Hearst wanted Outcault to work for the World.

35. The word “it”in line 12 refers to

(A) The“Yellow Kid”

(B) dialogue

(C) farce

(D) balloon

36. According to the passage, the “Yellow Kid” was the first comic strip

to do all of the following EXCEPT

(A) feature the same character in each episode

(B) include dialogue inside a balloon

(C) appear in a Chicago newspaper

(D) characterize city life in a humorous way

37. The word “incorporate”in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) affect

(B) create

(C) combine

(D) mention

38. The word “prototype”in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) story

(B) humor

(C) drawing

(D) model

39. The word “staple”in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) regular feature

(B) popular edition

(C) new version

(D) huge success

40. In what order does the author discuss various comic strips in the passage?

(A) In alphabetical order by title

(B) In the order in which they were created

(C) According to the newspaper in which they appeared

(D) From most popular to least popular

Question 41-50

Every drop of water in the ocean, even in the deepest parts, responds to the forces

that create the tides. No other force that affects the sea is so strong. Compared with the

tides, the waves created by the wind are surface movements felt no more than a

Line	hundred fathoms below the surface. The currents also seldom involve more than the

(5)	upper several hundred fathoms despite their impressive sweep.

The tides are a response of the waters of the ocean to the pull of the Moon and the

more distant Sun. In theory, there is a gravitational attraction between the water and

even the outermost star of the universe. In reality, however, the pull of remote stars is

so slight as to be obliterated by the control of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun.

(10)	Just as the Moon rises later each day by fifty minutes, on the average, so, in most

places, the time of high tide is correspondingly later each day. And as the Moon waxes

and wanes in its monthly cycle, so the height of the tide varies. The tidal movements

are strongest when the Moon is a sliver in the sky, and when it is full. These are the

highest flood tides and the lowest ebb tides of the lunar month and are called the spring

(15)	tides. At these times the Sun, Moon, and Earth are nearly in line and the pull of the two

heavenly bodies is added together to bring the water high on the beaches, to send its

surf upward against the sea	cliffs, and to draw a high tide into the harbors. Twice each

month, at the quarters of the Moon, when the Sun, Moon, and Earth lie at the apexes of

a triangular configuration and the pull of the Sun and Moon are opposed, the moderate

(20)	tidal movements called neap tides occur. Then the difference between high and low

water is less than at any other time during the month.

41. What is the main point of the first paragraph?

(A) The waves created by ocean currents are very large.

(B) Despite the strength of the wind, it only moves surface water.

(C) Deep ocean water is seldom affected by forces that move water.

(D) The tides are the most powerful force to affect the movement of ocean water.

42. The word “felt”in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) based

(B) dropped

(C) detected

(D) explored

43. The words “In reality”in line 8 are closest in meaning to

(A) surprisingly

(B) actually

(C) characteristically

(D) similarly

44. It can be inferred from the passage that the most important factor in determining

how much gravitational effect one object in space has on the tides is

(A) size

(B) distance

(C) temperature

(D) density

45. The word “correspondingly”in line 11 is closest in meaning to

(A) unpredictably

(B) interestingly

(C) similarly

(D) unusually

46. What is the cause of spring tides?

(A) Seasonal change in the weather

(B) The gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon when nearly in line

with the Earth

(C) The Earth's movement around the Sun

(D) The triangular arrangement of the Earth, Sun, and Moon

47. Which of the following pictures best represents the position of the Sun, Moon,

and Earth during spring tides?

48. The word “configuration”in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) unit

(B) center

(C) surface

(D) arrangement

49. Neap tides occur when

(A) the Sun counteracts the Moon's gravitational attraction

(B) the Moon is full

(C) the Moon is farthest from the Sun

(D) waves created by the wind combine with the Moon's gravitational attraction

50. According to the passage, all of the following statements about tides are

true EXCEPT:

(A) The time of high tide is later each day.

(B) Tides have a greater effect on the sea than waves do.

(C) The strongest tides occur at the quarters of the Moon.

(D) Neap tides are more moderate than spring tides.

Test 4

Questions 1-8

Hotels were among the earliest facilities that bound the United States together. They

were both creatures and creators of communities, as well as symptoms of the frenetic

quest for community. Even in the first part of the nineteenth century, Americans were

Line	already forming the habit of gathering from all corners of the nation for both public and

(5)	private, business and pleasure purposes. Conventions were the new occasions, and

hotels were distinctively American facilities making conventions possible. The first

national convention of a major party to choose a candidate for President (that of the

National Republican party, which met on December 12, 1831, and nominated Henry

Clay for President) was held in Baltimore, at a hotel that was then reputed to be the

(10)	best in the country. The presence in Baltimore of Barnum's City Hotel, a six-story

building with two hundred apartments, helps explain why many other early national

political conventions were held there.

In the longer run, too, American hotels made other national conventions not only

possible but pleasant and convivial. The growing custom of regularly assembling from

afar the representatives of all kinds of groups □ not only for political conventions, but

(15)	also for commercial, professional, learned, and avocational ones □ in turn supported

the multiplying hotels. By mid-twentieth century, conventions accounted for over a

third of the yearly room occupancy of all hotels in the nation; about eighteen thousand

different conventions were held annually with a total attendance of about ten million

(20)	persons.

Nineteenth-century American hotelkeepers, who were no longer the genial,

deferential “hosts” of the eighteenth-century European inn, became leading citizens.

Holding a large stake in the community, they exercised power to make it prosper. As

owners or managers of the local “palace of the public,” they were makers and shapers

of a principal community attraction. Travelers from abroad were mildly shocked by

this high social position.

1. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The size of early American hotels

(B) The importance of hotels in American culture

(C) How American hotels differed from European hotels

(D) Why conventions are held at hotels

2. The word “bound” in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) led

(B) protected

(C) tied

(D) strengthened

3. The National Republican party is mentioned in line 8 as an example of a group

(A) from Baltimore

(B) of learned people

(C) owning a hotel

(D) holding a convention

4. The word “assembling ”in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) announcing

(B) motivating

(C) gathering

(D) contracting

5. The word “ones” in line 16 refers to

(A) hotels

(B) conventions

(C) kinds

(D) representatives

6. The word “it” in line 23 refers to

(A) European inn

(B) host

(C) community

(D) public

7. It can be inferred form the passage that early hotelkeepers in the

United States were

(A) active politicians

(B) European immigrants

(C) professional builders

(D) influential citizen

8. Which of the following statements about early American hotels is NOT

mentioned in the passage?

(A) Travelers from abroad did not enjoy staying in them.

(B) Conventions were held in them.

(C) People used them for both business and pleasure.

(D) They were important to the community.

Question 9-18

Beads were probably the first durable ornaments humans possessed, and the

intimate relationship they had with their owners is reflected in the fact that beads are

among the most common items found in ancient archaeological sites. In the past, as

Line	today, men, women, and children adorned themselves with beads. In some cultures

(5)	still, certain beads are often worn from birth until death, and then are buried with their

owners for the afterlife. Abrasion due to daily wear alters the surface features of beads,

and if they are buried for long, the effects of corrosion can further changed their

appearance. Thus, interest is imparted to the bead both by use and the effects of time.

Besides their wearability, either as jewelry or incorporated into articles of attire,

(10)	beads possess the desirable characteristics of every collectible : they are durable,

portable, available in infinite variety, and often valuable in their original cultural

context as well as in today's market. Pleasing to look at and touch, beads come in

shapes, colors, and materials that almost compel one to handle them and to sort them.

Beads are miniature bundles of secrets waiting to be revealed : their history,

(15)	manufacture, cultural context, economic role, and ornamental use are all points of

information one hopes to unravel. Even the most mundane beads may have traveled

great distances and been exposed to many human experiences. The bead researcher

must gather information from many diverse fields. In addition to having to be a

generalist while specializing in what may seem to be a narrow field, the researcher is

(20)	faced with the problem of primary materials that have little or no documentation. Many

ancient beads that are of ethnographic interest have often been separated from their

original cultural context.

The special attractions of beads contribute to the uniqueness of bead research. While

often regarded as the “small change of civilizations”, beads are a part of every culture,

(25)	and they can often be used to date archaeological sites and to designate the degree of

mercantile, technological, and cultural sophistication.

9. What is the main subject of the passage?

(A) Materials used in making beads

(B) How beads are made

(C) The reasons for studying beads

(D) Different types of beads

10. The word “adorned” in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) protected

(B) decorated

(C) purchased

(D) enjoyed

11. The word “attire”in line 9 is closest in meaning to

(A) ritual

(B) importance

(C) clothing

(D) history

12. All of the following are given as characteristic of collectible

objects EXCEPT

(A) durability

(B) portability

(C) value

(D) scarcity

13. According to the passage, all of the following are factors that

make people want to touch beads EXCEPT the

(A) shape

(B) color

(C) material

(D) odor

14. The word “unravel”in line 16 is closest in meaning to

(A) communicate

(B) transport

(C) improve

(D) discover

15. The word “mundane ”in line 16 is closest in meaning to

(A) carved

(B) beautiful

(C) ordinary

(D) heavy

16. It is difficult to trace the history of certain ancient beads because they

(A) are small in size

(B) have been buried underground

(C) have been moved from their original locations

(D) are frequently lost

17. Knowledge of the history of some beads may be useful in the studies

done by which of the following?

(A) Anthropologists

(B) Agricultural experts

(C) Medical researchers

(D) Economists

18. Where in the passage does the author describe why the appearance

of beads may change?

(A) Lines 3-4

(B) Lines 6-8

(C) Lines 12-13

(D) Lines 20-22

Question 19-32

In the world of birds, bill design is a prime example of evolutionary fine-tuning.

Shorebirds such as oystercatchers use their bills to pry open the tightly sealed shells of

their prey, hummingbirds have stilettolike bills to probe the deepest nectar-bearing

Line	flowers, and kiwis smell out earthworms thanks to nostrils located at the tip of their

(5)	beaks. But few birds are more intimately tied to their source of sustenance than are

crossbills. Two species of these finches, named for the way the upper and lower parts

of their bills cross, rather than meet in the middle, reside in the evergreen forests of

North America and feed on the seeds held within the cones of coniferous trees.

The efficiency of the bill is evident when a crossbill locates a cone. Using a lateral

(10)	motion of its lower mandible, the bird separates two overlapping scales on the cone and

exposes the seed. The crossed mandibles enable the bird to exert a powerful biting

force at the bill tips, which is critical for maneuvering them between the scales and

spreading the scales apart. Next, the crossbill snakes its long tongue into the gap and

draws out the seed. Using the combined action of the bill and tongue, the bird cracks

(15)	open and discards the woody seed covering and swallows the nutritious inner kernel.

This whole process takes but a few seconds and is repeated hundreds of times a day.

The bills of different crossbill species and subspecies vary □ some are stout and

deep, others more slender and shallow. As a rule, large-billed crossbills are better at

securing seeds from large cones, while small-billed crossbills are more deft at

(20)	removing the seeds from small, thin-scaled cones. Moreover, the degree to which cones

are naturally slightly open or tightly closed helps determine which bill design is the

best.

One anomaly is the subspecies of red crossbill known as the Newfoundland

crossbill. This bird has a large, robust bill, yet most of Newfoundland's conifers have

small cones, the same kind of cones that the slender-billed white-wings rely on.

19. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The importance of conifers in evergreen forests

(B) The efficiency of the bill of the crossbill

(C) The variety of food available in a forest

(D) The different techniques birds use to obtain food

20. Which of the following statements best represents the type of "evolutionary	fine-tuning" mentioned in line 1?

(A) Different shapes of bills have evolved depending on the available food supply.

(B) White-wing crossbills have evolved from red crossbills.

(C) Newfoundland's conifers have evolved small cones.

(D) Several subspecies of crossbills have evolved from two species.

21. Why does the author mention oystercatchers, hummingbirds, and kiwis in lines 2-4?

(A) They are examples of birds that live in the forest.

(B) Their beaks are similar to the beak of the crossbill.

(C) They illustrate the relationship between bill design and food supply.

(D) They are closely related to the crossbill.

22. Crossbills are a type of

(A) shorebird	(B) hummingbird

(C) kiwi	(D) finch

23. Which of the following most closely resembles the bird described in lines 6-8?

24. The word "which" in line 12 refers to

(A) seed	(B) bird

(C) force	(D) bill

25. The word "gap" in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(A) opening	(B) flower

(C) mouth	(D) tree

26. The word "discards" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) eats	(B) breaks

(C) finds out	(D) gets rid of

27. The word "others" in line 18 refers to

(A) bills	(B) species

(C) seeds	(D) cones

28. The word "deft" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) hungry	(B) skilled	(C) tired	(D) pleasant

29. The word "robust" in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) strong	(B) colorful	(C) unusual	(D) sharp

30. In what way is the Newfoundland crossbill an anomaly?

(A) It is larger than the other crossbill species.

(B) It uses a different technique to obtain food.

(C) The size of its bill does not fit the size of its food source.

(D) It does not live in evergreen forests.

31. The final paragraph of the passage will probably continue with a discussion of

(A) other species of forest birds

(B) the fragile ecosystem of Newfoundland

(C) what mammals live in the forests of North America

(D) how the Newfoundland crossbill survives with a large bill

32. Where in the passage does the author describe how a crossbill removes a seed from

its cone?

(A) The first paragraph           (B) The second paragraph

(C) The third paragraph	(D) The fourth paragraph

Question 33-39

If you look closely at some of the early copies of the Declaration of Independence,

beyond the flourished signature of John Hancock and the other 55 men who signed it,

you will also find the name of one woman, Mary Katherine Goddard. It was she, a

Line	Baltimore printer, who published the first official copies of the Declaration, the first

(5)	copies that included the names of its signers and therefore heralded the support of all

thirteen colonies.

Mary Goddard first got into printing at the age of twenty-four when her brother

opened a printing shop in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1762. When he proceeded to

get into trouble with his partners and creditors, it was Mary Goddard and her mother

(10)	who were left to run the shop. In 1765 they began publishing the Providence Gazette, a

weekly newspaper. Similar problems seemed to follow her brother as he opened

businesses in Philadelphia and again in Baltimore. Each time Ms. Goddard was

brought in to run the newspapers. After starting Baltimore's first newspaper, The

Maryland Jounal, in 1773, her brother went broke trying to organize a colonial postal

(15)	service. While he was in debtor's prison, Mary Katherine Goddard's name appeared on

the newspaper's masthead for the first time.

When the Continental Congress fled there from Philadelphia in 1776, it

commissioned Ms. Goddard to print the first official version of the Declaration of

Independence in January 1777. After printing the documents, she herself paid the post

(20)	riders to deliver the Declaration throughout the colonies.

During the American Revolution, Mary Goddard continued to publish Baltimore's

only newspaper, which one historian claimed was "second to none among the

colonies."  She was also the city's postmaster from 1775 to 1789 □ appointed by

Benjamin Franklin □ and is considered to be the first woman to hold a federal position.

33. With which of the following subjects is the passage mainly concerned?

(A) The accomplishments of a female publisher

(B) The weaknesses of the newspaper industry

(C) The rights of a female publisher

(D) The publishing system in colonial America

34. Mary Goddard's name appears on the Declaration of Independence because

(A) she helped write the original document

(B) she published the document

(C) she paid to have the document printed

(D) her brother was in prison

35. The word "heralded" in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) influenced

(B) announced

(C) rejected

(D) ignored

36. According to the passage, Mary Goddard first became involved in

publishing when she

(A) was appointed by Benjamin Franklin

(B) signed the Declaration of Independence

(C) took over her brother's printing shop

(D) moved to Baltimore

37. The word "there" in line 17 refers to

(A) the colonies

(B) the print shop

(C) Baltimore

(D) Providence

38. It can be inferred from the passage that Mary Goddard was

(A) an accomplished businesswoman

(B) extremely wealthy

(C) a member of the Continental Congress

(D) a famous writer

39. The word "position" in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) job

(B) election

(C) document

(D) location

Question 40-50

Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe. A galaxy is a giant family of

many millions of stars, and it is held together by its own gravitational field. Most of the

material universe is organized into galaxies of stars, together with gas and dust.

Line	There are three main types of galaxy ; spiral, elliptical, and irregular. The Milky

(5)	Way is a spiral galaxy : a flattish disc of stars with two spiral arms emerging from its

central nucleus. About one-quarter of all galaxies have this shape. Spiral galaxies are

well supplied with the interstellar gas in which new stars form ; as the rotating spiral

pattern sweeps around the galaxy it compresses gas and dust, triggering the formation

of bright young stars in its arms. The elliptical galaxies have a symmetrical elliptical or

(10)	spheroidal shape with no obvious structure. Most of their member stars are very old

and since ellipticals are devoid of interstellar gas, no new stars are forming in them.

The biggest and brightest galaxies in the universe are ellipticals with masses of about

1013 times that of the Sun; these giants may frequently be sources of strong radio

emission, in which case they are called radio galaxies. About two-thirds of all galaxies

(15)	are elliptical. Irregular galaxies comprise about one-tenth of all galaxies and they come

in many subclasses.

Measurement in space is quite different from measurement on Earth. Some

terrestrial distances can be expressed as intervals of time : the time to fly from one

continent to another or the time it takes to drive to work, for example. By comparison

(20)	with these familiar yardsticks, the distances to	the galaxies are incomprehensibly large,

but they too are made more manageable by using a time calibration, in this case the

distance that light travels in one year. On such a scale the nearest giant spiral galaxy,

the Andromeda galaxy, is two million light years away. The most distant luminous

objects seen by telescopes are probably ten thousand million light years away. Their

light was already halfway here before the Earth even formed. The light from the nearby

Virgo galaxy set out when reptiles still dominated the animal world.

40. The world "major" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) intense

(B) principal

(C) huge

(D) unique

41. What does the second paragraph mainly discuss?

(A) The Milky Way

(B) Major categories of galaxies

(C) How elliptical galaxies are formed

(D) Difference between irregular and spiral galaxies

42. The word "which" in line 7 refers to

(A) dust

(B) gas

(C) pattern

(D) galaxy

43. According to the passage, new stars are formed in spiral galaxies due to

(A) an explosion of gas

(B) the compression of gas and dust

(C) the combining of old stars

(D) strong radio emissions

44. The word "symmetrical" in line 9 is closest in meaning to

(A) proportionally balanced

(B) commonly seen

(C) typical large

(D) steadily growing

45. The word "obvious" in line 10 is closest in meaning to

(A) discovered

(B) apparent

(C) understood

(D) simplistic

46. According to the passage, which of the following is NOT true of

elliptical galaxies?

(A) They are the largest galaxies.

(B) They mostly contain old stars.

(C) They contain a high amount of interstellar gas.

(D) They have a spherical shape

47. Which of the following characteristics of radio galaxies is mentioned

in the passage?

(A) They are a type of elliptical galaxy.

(B) They are usually too small to be seen with a telescope

(C) They are closely related to irregular galaxies.

(D) They are not as bright as spiral galaxies.

48. What percentage of galaxies are irregular?

(A) 10%

(B) 25%

(C) 50%

(D) 75%

49. The word "they" in line 21 refers to

(A) intervals

(B) yardsticks

(C) distances

(D) galaxies

50. Why does the author mention the Virgo galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy

in the third paragraph?

(A) To describe the effect that distance has on visibility

(B) To compare the ages of two relatively young galaxies

(C) To emphasize the vast distances of the galaxies from Earth

(D) To explain why certain galaxies cannot be seen by a telescope

Test 5

Question 1-8

A distinctively American architecture began with Frank Lloyd Wright, who had taken

to heart the admonition that form should follow function, and who thought of buildings

not as separate architectural entities but as parts of an organic whole that included the

Line	land, the community, and the society. In a very real way the houses of colonial New

(5)	England and some of the southern plantations had been functional, but Wright was the

first architect to make functionalism the authoritative principle for public as well as for

domestic buildings.

As early as 1906 he built the Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, the first of those

churches that did so much to revolutionize ecclesiastical architecture in the United

(10)	States. Thereafter he turned his genius to such miscellaneous structures as houses,

schools, office buildings, and factories, among them the famous Larkin Building

in Buffalo, New York, and the Johnson Wax Company Building in Racine, Wisconsin.

1. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The architecture of public buildings

(B) An architectural pioneer

(C) New England architecture

(D) principles of architecture

2. The phrase “taken to heart” in lines 1-2 is closest in meaning to which

of the following?

(A) Taken seriously

(B) Criticized

(C) Memorized

(D) Taken offence

3. The word “admonition” in line 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) monition

(B) support

(C) discussion

(D) consideration

4. The word “entities” in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) principles

(B) existences

(C) subtractions

(D) properties

5. In what way did Wright's public buildings differ from most of those

built by earlier architects?

(A) They were built on a larger scale.

(B) Their materials came from the southern United States.

(C) They looked more like private homes.

(D) Their designs were based on how they would be used.

6. The author mentions the Unity Temple because it

(A) was Wright's first building

(B) influenced the architecture of subsequent churches

(C) demonstrated traditional ecclesiastical architecture

(D) was the largest church Wright ever designed

7. Which of the following statements best reflects one of Frank Lloyd Wright's

architectural principles?

(A) Beautiful design is more important than utility.

(B) Ecclesiastical architecture should be derived from traditional designs.

(C) A building should fit into its surroundings.

(D) The architecture of public buildings does not need to be revolutionary.

8. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a type of structure Frank Lloyd

Wright made ?

(A) houses

(B) factories

(C) southern plantations

(D) churches

Question 9-15

There are two basic types of glaciers, those that flow outward in all directions with

little regard for any underlying terrain and those that are confined by terrain to a

particular path.

Line	The first category of glaciers includes those massive blankets that cover whole

(5)	continents, appropriately called ice sheets. There must be over 50,000 square kilometers

of land covered with ice for the glacier to qualify as an ice sheet. When portions of an

ice sheet spread out over the ocean, they form ice shelves.

About 20,000 years ago the Cordilleran Ice Sheet covered nearly all the mountains

in southern Alaska, western Canada, and the western United States. It was about

(10)	3 kilometers deep at its thickest point in northern Alberta. Now there are only two

sheets left on Earth, those covering Greenland and Antarctica.

Any domelike body of ice that also flows out in all directions but covers less than

50,000 square kilometers is called an ice cap. Although ice caps are rare nowadays,

there are a number in northeastern Canada, on Baffin Island, and on the Queen

(15)	Elizabeth Islands.

The second category of glaciers includes those of a variety of shapes and sizes

generally called mountain or alpine glaciers. Mountain glaciers are typically identified

by the landform that controls their flow. One form of mountain glacier that resembles

an ice cap in that it flows outward in several directions is called an ice field. The

(20)	difference between an ice field and an ice cap is subtle. Essentially, the flow of an ice

field is somewhat controlled by surrounding terrain and thus does not have the domelike

shape of a cap. There are several ice fields in the Wrangell, St. Elias, and Chugach

mountains of Alaska and northern British Columbia.

Less spectacular than large ice fields are the most common types of mountain

(25)	glaciers : the cirque and valley glaciers. Cirque glaciers are found in depressions in the

surface of the land and have a characteristic circular shape. The ice of valley glaciers,

bound by terrain, flows down valleys, curves around their corners, and falls over cliffs.

9. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Where major glaciers are located

(B) How glaciers shape the land

(C) How glaciers are formed

(D) The different kinds of glaciers

10. It can be inferred that ice sheets are so named for which of the

following reasons?

(A) They are confined to mountain valleys.

(B) They cover large areas of land.

(C) They are thicker in some areas than in others.

(D) They have a characteristic circular shape.

11. According to the passage, where was the Cordilleran Ice Sheet thickest ?

(A) Alaska

(B) Greenland

(C) Alberta

(D) Antarctica

12. The word “rare” in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(A) small

(B) unusual

(C) valuable

(D) widespread

13. According to the passage (paragraph 5), ice fields resemble ice caps in

which of the following ways?

(A) Their shape

(B) Their flow

(C) Their texture

(D) Their location

14. All of the following are alpine glaciers EXCEPT

(A) cirque glaciers

(B) ice caps

(C) valley glaciers

(D) ice fields

15. The word “depressions” in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) intrusion

(B) dejection

(C) concaves

(D) convexes

Question 16-22

Tools and hand bones excavated from the Swartkrans cave complex in South Africa

suggest that a close relative of early humans known as Australopithecus robustus may

have made and used primitive tools long before the species became extinct 1 million

Line	years ago. It may even have made and used primitive tools long before humanity's

(5)	direct ancestor, Homo habilis, or “handy man,” began doing so. Homo habilis and its

successor, Homo eretus, coexisted with Australopithecus robustus on plains of

South Africa for more than a million years.

The Swartkrans cave in South Africa has been under excavation since the 1940's.

The earliest fossil-containing layers of sedimentary rock in the cave date from about

(10)	1.9 million years ago and contain extensive remains of animals, primitive tools, and

two or more species of apelike hominids. The key recent discovery involved bones

from the hand of Australopithecus robustus, the first time such bones have been found.

The most important feature of the Australopithecus robustus hand was the pollical

distal thumb tip, the last bone in the thumb. The bone had an attachment point for a

(15)	“uniquely human” muscle, the flexor pollicis longus, that had previously been found

only in more recent ancestors. That muscle gave Australopithecus robustus an opposable

thumb, a feature that would allow them to grip objects, including tools. The researchers

also found primitive bone and stone implements, especially digging tools, in the same

layers of sediments.

(20)	Australopithecus robustus were more heavily built □ more “robust” in anthropological	terms □ than their successors. They had broad faces, heavy jaws, and massive crushing

and grinding teeth that were used for eating hard fruits, seeds, and fibrous underground

plant parts. They walked upright, which would have allowed them to carry and use tools.

Most experts had previously believed that Home habilis were able to supplant

(25)	Australopithecus robustus because the former's ability to use tools gave them an innate

superiority. The discovery that Australopithecus robustus also used tools means that

researchers will have to seek other explanations for their extinction. Perhaps their

reliance on naturally occurring plants led to their downfall as the climate became drier

and cooler, or perhaps Homo habilis, with their bigger brains, were simply able to

(30)	make more sophisticated tools.

16. It can be inferred from the first paragraph that all of the following

may have made and used tools EXCEPT

(A) Australopithecus robustus

(B) Home erectus

(C) Home habilis

(D) Australopithecus robustus' ancestors

17. Which of the following does the author mention as the most important

recent discovery made in the Swartkrans cave?

(A) Tools

(B) Teeth

(C) Plant fossils

(D) Hand bones

18. What does the third paragraph mainly discuss?

(A) Features of Australopithecus robustus' hand

(B) Purposes for which hominids used tools

(C) Methods used to determine the age of fossils

(D) Significant plant fossils found in layers of sediment

19. It can be inferred from the description in the last paragraph that

Australopithecus robustus was so named because of the species'

(A) ancestors

(B) thumb

(C) build

(D) diet

20. The word “supplant”in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) exploit

(B) displace

(C) understand

(D) imitate

21. The word “them” in line 25 refers to

(A) tools

(B) Homo habilis

(C) Australopithecus robustus

(D) experts

22. The word “innate” in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(A) inherent

(B) incidental

(C) objective

(D) irrelevant

23. What does the author suggest is unclear about Australopithecus robustus?

(A) whether they used tools

(B) what they most likely ate

(C) whether they are closely related to humans

(D) why they became extinct

Question 24-29

The first two decades of this century were dominated by the microbe hunters. These

hunters had tracked down one after another of the microbes responsible for the most

dreaded scourges of many centuries ; tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria. But there remained

Line	some terrible diseases for which no microbe could be incriminated : scurvy, pellagra,

(5)	rickets, beriberi. Then it was discovered that these diseases were caused by the lack of

vitamins, a trace substance in the diet. The diseases could be prevented or cured by

consuming foods that contained the vitamins. And so in the decades of the 1920's and

1930's, nutrition became a science and the vitamin hunters replaced the microbe hunters.

In the 1940's and 1950's, biochemists strived to learn why each of the vitamins was

(10)	essential for health. They discovered that key enzymes in metabolism depend on one or

another of the vitamins as coenzymes to perform the chemistry that provides cells with

energy for growth and function. Now, these enzymes hunters occupied center stage.

You are aware that the enzyme hunters have been replaced by a new breed of hunters

who are	tracking genes □ the blueprints for each of the enzymes □ and are discovering

(15)	the defective genes that cause inherited diseases □ diabetes, cystic fibrosis. These gene

hunters, or genetic engineers, use recombinant DNA technology to identify and clone

genes and introduce them into bacterial cells and plants to create factories for the massive	production of hormones and vaccines for medicine and for better crops for agriculture.	Biotechnology has become a multibillion-dollar industry.

(20)	In view of the inexorable progress in science, we can expect that the gene hunters

will be replaced in the spotlight. When and by whom? Which kind of hunter will dominate

the scene in the last decade of our waning century and in the early decades of the next ?

I wonder whether the hunters who will occupy the spotlight will be neurobiologists

who apply the techniques of the enzyme and gene hunters to the functions of the brain.

(25)	What to call them? The head hunters. I will return to them later.

24. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The microbe hunters

(B) The potential of genetic engineering

(C) The progress of modern medical research

(D) The discovery of enzymes

25. Which of the following can be cured by a change in diet?

(A) Tuberculosis

(B) Cholera

(C) Cystic fibrosis

(D) Pellagra

26. How do vitamins influence health?

(A) They are necessary for some enzymes to function.

(B) They protect the body from microbes.

(C) They keep food from spoiling.

(D) They are broken down by cells to produce energy.

27. In the third paragraph, the author compares cells that have been

genetically altered by biotechnicians to

(A) gardens

(B) factories

(C) hunters

(D) spotlights

28. The phrase“occupy the spotlight”in line 23 is closest in meaning to

(A) receive the most attention

(B) go the furthest

(C) conquer territory

(D) lighten the load

29. The author implies that the most important medical research topic of the

future will be

(A) the functions of the brain

(B) inherited diseases

(C) the operation of vitamins

(D) the structure of genes

Question 30-35

In the mid-nineteenth century, the United States had tremendous natural resources

that could be exploited in order to develop heavy industry. Most of the raw materials

that are valuable in the manufacture of machinery, transportation facilities, and consumer

Line	goods lay ready to be worked into wealth. Iron, coal, and oil □ the basic ingredients of

(5)	industrial growth □ were plentiful and needed only the application of technical expertise,

organizational skill, and labor.

One crucial development in this movement toward industrialization was the growth

of the railroads. The railway network expanded rapidly until the railroad map of the

United States looked like a spider's web, with the steel filaments connecting all important

(10)	sources of raw materials, their places of manufacture, and their centers of distribution.

The railroads contributed to the industrial growth not only by connecting these major

centers, but also by themselves consuming enormous amounts of fuel, iron, and coal.

Many factors influenced emerging modes of production. For example, machine

tools, the tools used to make goods, were steadily improved in the latter part of the

(15)	nineteenth century □ always with an eye to speedier production and lower unit costs.

The products of the factories were rapidly absorbed by the growing cities that sheltered

the workers and the distributors. The increased urban population was nourished by the

increased farm production that, in turn, was made more productive by the use of the

new farm machinery. American agricultural production kept up with the urban demand

(20)	and still had surpluses for sale to the industrial centers of Europe.

The labor that ran the factories and built the railways was recruited in part from

American farm areas where people were being displaced by farm machinery, in part

from Asia, and in part from Europe. Europe now began to send tides of immigrants

from eastern and southern Europe □ most of whom were originally poor farmers but

(25)	who settled in American industrial cities. The money to finance this tremendous

expansion of the American economy still came from European financiers for the most

part, but the Americans were approaching the day when their expansion could be

financed in their own “money market”

30. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The history of railroads in the United States

(B) The major United States industrial centers

(C) Factors that affected industrialization in the United States

(D) The role of agriculture in the nineteenth century

31. Why does the author mention “a spider's web” in line 9?

(A) To emphasize the railroad's consumption of oil and coal

(B) To describe the complex structure of the railway system

(C) To explain the problems brought on by railway expansion

(D) To describe the difficulties involved in the distribution of raw materials

32. The word “themselves” in line 12 refers to

(A) sources

(B) centers

(C) railroads

(D) places

33. According to the passage, what was one effect of the improvement

of machine tools?

(A) Lower manufacturing costs

(B) Better distribution of goods

(C) More efficient transportation of natural resources

(D) A reduction in industrial jobs

34. Which of the following is NOT true of United States farmers in the

nineteenth century?

(A) They lost some jobs because of mechanization

(B) They were unable to produce sufficient food for urban areas.

(C) They raised their productivity by using new machinery.

(D) They sold food to European countries

35. The word “ran” in line 21 is closest in meaning to

(A) operated

(B) hurried

(C) constructed

(D) owned

Question 36-44

The concept of obtaining fresh water from iceberg that are towed to populated areas and arid

regions of the world was once treated as a joke more appropriate to cartoons than real life. But

now it is being considered quite seriously by many nations, especially since scientists have

Line	warned that the human race will outgrow its fresh water supply faster than it runs out of food.

(5)        Glaciers are a possible source of fresh water that have been overlooked until recently. <A>

Three-quarters of the Earth's fresh water supply is still tied up in glacial ice, a reservoir of

untapped fresh water so immense that it could sustain all the rivers of the world for 1,000 years.

Floating on the oceans every year are 7,659 trillion metric tons of ice encased in 10,000 icebergs

that break away from the polar ice caps, more than ninety percent of them from Antarctica. <B>

(10)	Huge glaciers that stretch over the shallow continental shelf give birth to icebergs throughout	the year. Icebergs are not like sea ice, which is formed when the sea itself freezes ; rather, they	are formed entirely on land, breaking off when glaciers spread over the sea. As they drift away

from the polar region, icebergs sometimes move mysteriously in a direction opposite to the wind,

pulled by subsurface currents. Because they melt more slowly than smaller pieces of ice, icebergs

(15)	have been known to drift as far north as 35 degrees south of the equator in the Atlantic Ocean.              <C>

The difficulty arises in other technical matters, such as the prevention of rapid melting in

warmer climates and the funneling of fresh water to shore in great volume. But even if the

icebergs lost half of their volume in towing, the water they could provide would be far cheaper

than that produced by desalination, or removing salt from water. <D>

36. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The movement of glaciers

(B) Icebergs as a source of fresh water

(C) Future water shortages

(D) The future of the world's rivers

37. The word “arid” in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) anhydrous

(B) fruitful

(C) remote

(D) distant

38. The word "it" in line 3 refers to

(A) an iceberg that is towed

(B) obtaining fresh water from icebergs

(C) the population of arid areas

(D) real life

39. According to the author, most of the world's fresh water is

to be found in

(A) oceans

(B) rivers

(C) glaciers

(D) reservoirs

40. The word “currents” in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) pulls

(B) waves

(C) weather

(D) flows of water

41. How are icebergs formed?

(A) They break off from glaciers

(B) Seawater freezes

(C) Rivers freeze

(D) Small pieces of floating ice converge

42. With which of the following ideas would the author be likely to agree?

(A) Towing icebergs to dry areas is economically possible.

(B) Desalination of water is the best way to obtain drinking water.

(C) Using water from icebergs is a very short-term solution to water shortages.

(D) Icebergs could not be towed very far before they would melt.

43. Which of the following is the best place where the sentence

"To corral them and steer them to parts of the world where they are

needed would not be too difficult."

will most properly fit ?

(A) <A>

(B) <B>

(C) <C>

(D) <D>

44. The word "that" in the last line refers to

(A) the volume

(B) the water

(C) the iceberg

(D) the towing

Question 45-50

Surrounding Alaska on all but one side are two oceans and a vast sea, giving this state the

longest coastline in the United States. In fact, if the coastlines of all of its peninsulas and

islands are considered, Alaska has a longer coastline, 33,904 miles (54,563 kilometers), than all

Line	the other 49 states together.

(5)	Most of the state lies on a peninsula, bounded by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Bering

Sea to the west, and the Pacific Ocean on the southwest, south, and southeast. This peninsula,	stretching away from the rest of North America, forms the northwest corner of the continent.

One of the world's largest peninsulas, it is partly shared with Canada on the east.

The seas indent the shores of the main peninsula to form other peninsulas that contribute

(10)	some of the most outstanding features to Alaska's outline. Most notable of these is the Alaska	Peninsula. The peninsula itself is 550 miles (885 kilometers) long, before the spectacular chain

of islands reaches toward Asia.

Another of Alaska's large peninsulas is Seward, in which a number of smaller eastern states	could be swallowed up. The Kenai Peninsula, less extensive than Seward, is about the size of

(15)	the state of Maryland.

Part of Alaska's ocean heritage, many islands lie along the fringes of the state. Much of	southeastern Alaska is made up of the Alexander Archipelago of 1100 islands, including

Baranof, Kuiu, and Admiralty. Continuing up the coast are the islands of Prince William

Sound. The Aleutian Islands pursue their bleak and windswept course in a long arc that

(20)	encloses the Bering Sea. Included in the Aleutian chain are whole archipelagoes, such as the

Fox, Near, and Rat islands.

45. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The geography of the western United States

(B) The coastline of North America

(C) The territory that makes up Alaska

(D) The countries that border Alaska

46. The word “its” in line 2 refers to

(A) sea

(B) coastline

(C) Alaska

(D) peninsula

47. Alaska is bordered on the southwest by

(A) the Pacific Ocean

(B) the Arctic Ocean

(C) the Bering Sea

(D) Canada

48. Why does the author mention Maryland in line 15 ?

(A) To show another state that has a peninsula

(B) To compare the coastline of Alaska with that of Maryland

(C) To contrast the weather patterns in two states

(D) To illustrate a point about the size of one of Alaska's peninsulas

49. Kuiu is the name of

(A) an ocean

(B) an island

(C) a peninsula

(D) a country

50. The word “pursue” in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) follow

(B) direct

(C) divide

(D) slide

Test 6

Questions 1-10

The ocean bottom □ a region nearly 2.5 times greater than the total land area of the

Earth □ is a vast frontier that even today is largely unexplored and uncharted, Until

about a century ago, the deep-ocean floor was completely inaccessible, hidden beneath

Line	waters averaging over 3,600 meters deep. Totally without light and subjected to intense

(5)	pressures hundreds of times greater than at the Earth's surface, the deep-ocean bottom

is a hostile environment to humans, in some ways as forbidding and remote as the void

of outer space.

Although researchers have taken samples of deep-ocean rocks and sediments for

over a century, the first detailed global investigation of the ocean bottom did not

(10)	actually start until 1968, with the beginning of the National Science Foundation's Deep

Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). Using techniques first developed for the offshore oil and

gas industry, the DSDP's drill ship, the Glomar Challenger, was able to maintain a

steady position on the ocean's surface and drill in very deep waters, extracting samples

of sediments and rock from the ocean floor.

(15)	The Glomar Challenger completed 96 voyages in a 15-year research program that

ended in November 1983. During this time, the vessel logged 600,000 kilometers and

took almost 20,000 core samples of seabed sediments and rocks at 624 drilling sites

around the world. The Glomar Challenger's core sample have allowed geologists

to reconstruct what the planet looked like hundreds of millions of years ago and to

(20)	calculate what it will probably look like millions of years in the future. Today, largely

on the strength of evidence gathered during the Glomar Challenger's voyages, nearly

all earth scientists agree on the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift that

explain many of the geological processes that shape the Earth.

The cores of sediment drilled by the Glomar Challenger have also yielded

(25)	information critical to understanding the world's past climates. Deep-ocean sediments

provide a climatic record stretching back hundreds of millions of years, because they

are largely isolated from the mechanical erosion and the intense chemical and biological

activity that rapidly destroy much land-based evidence of past climates. This record has

already provided insights into the patterns and causes of past climatic change □

information that may be used to predict future climates.

1. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) Marine life deep in the ocean

(B) The Earth's climate millions of years ago

(C) The first detailed study of the bottom of the ocean

(D) Geologists' predictions for the future environment of the Earth

2. The author refers to the ocean bottom as a "frontier" in line 2 because it

(A) is not a popular area for scientific research

(B) contains a wide variety of life forms

(C) attracts courageous explorers

(D) is an unknown territory

3. The word "inaccessible" in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) unrecognizable

(B) unreachable

(C) unusable

(D) unsafe

4. The author mentions outer space in line 7 because

(A) the Earth's climate millions of years ago was similar to conditions in outer space

(B) it is similar to the ocean floor in being alien to the human environment

(C) rock formations in outer space are similar to those found on the ocean floor

(D) techniques used by scientists to explore outer space were similar to those used in

ocean exploration

5. Which of the following is true of the Glomar Challenger?

(A) It is a type of submarine.

(B) It is an ongoing project.

(C) It has gone on over 100 voyages.

(D) It made its first DSDP voyage in 1968.

6. The word "extracting" in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(A) breaking

(B) locating

(C) removing

(D) analyzing

7. The Deep Sea Drilling Project was signigicant because it was

(A) an attempt to find new sources of oil and gas

(B) the first extensive exploration of the ocean bottom

(C) composed of geologists from all over the world

(D) funded entirely by the gas and oil industry

8. The word "strength" in line 21 is closest in meaning to

(A) basis

(B) purpose

(C) discovery

(D) endurance

9. The word "they" in line 26 refers to

(A) years

(B) climates

(C) sediments

(D) cores

10. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as being

a result of the Deep Sea Drilling Project?

(A) Geologists were able to determine the Earth's appearance hundreds

of millions of years ago.

(B) Two geological theories became more widely accepted by scientists.

(C) Information was revealed about the Earth's past climatic changes.

(D) Geologists observed forms of marine life never before seen.

Questions 11-22

Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is

the country's impressive population growth. For every three Canadians in 1945, there

were over five in 1966. In September 1966 Canada's population passed the 20 million

Line	mark. Most of this surging growth came from natural increase. The depression of the

(5)	1930's and the war had held back marriages, and the catching-up process began after

1945. The baby boom continued through the decade of the 1950's, producing a

population increase of nearly fifteen percent in the five years from 1951 to 1956. This

rate of increase had been exceeded only once before in Canada's history, in the decade

before 1911, when the prairies were being settled. Undoubtedly, the good economic

(10)	conditions of the 1950's supported a growth in the population, but the expansion also

derived from a trend toward earlier marriages and an increase in the average size of

families. In 1957 the Canadian birth rate stood at 28 per thousand, one of the highest in

the world.

After the peak year of 1957, the birth rate in Canada began to decline. It continued

(15)	falling until in 1966 it stood at the lowest level in 25 years. Partly this decline reflected

the low level of births during the depression and the war, but it was also caused by

changes in Canadian society. Young people were staying at school longer; more

woman were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses

before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families.

(20)	It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller

families that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial

Revolution.

Although the growth in Canada's population had slowed down by 1966 (the

increase in the first half of the 1960's was only nine percent), another large population

(25)	wave was coming over the horizon. It would be composed of the children of the

children who were born during the period of the high birth rate prior to 1957.

11. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Educational changes in Canadian society

(B) Canada during the Second World War

(C) Population trends in postwar Canada

(D) Standards of living in Canada

12. According to the passage, when did Canada's baby boom begin?

(A) In the decade after 1911

(B) After 1945

(C) During the depression of the 1930's

(D) In 1966

13. The word "five" in line 3 refers to

(A) Canadians

(B) years

(C) decades

(D) marriages

14. The word "surging" in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) new	(B) extra

(C) accelerating	(D) surprising

15. The author suggests that in Canada during the 1950's

(A) the urban population decreased rapidly

(B) fewer people married

(C) economic conditions were poor

(D) the birth rate was very high

16. The word "trend" in line 11 is closest in meaning to

(A) tendency

(B) aim

(C) growth

(D) directive

17. The word "peak" in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) pointed

(B) dismal

(C) mountain

(D) maximum

18. When was the birth rate in Canada at its lowest postwar level?

(A) 1966

(B) 1957

(C) 1956

(D) 1951

19. The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines in population

growth after 1957 EXCEPT

(A) people being better educated

(B) people getting married earlier

(C) better standards of living

(D) couples buying houses

20. It can be inferred from the passage that before the Industrial Revolution

(A) families were larger

(B) population statistics were unreliable

(C) the population grew steadily

(D) economic conditions were bad

21. The word "It" in line 25 refers to

(A) horizon

(B) population wave

(C) nine percent

(D) first half

22. The phrase "prior to" in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) behind

(B) since

(C) during

(D) preceding

Questions 23-31

Are organically grown foods the best food choices? The advantages claimed for

such foods over conventionally grown and marketed food products are now being

debated. Advocates of organic foods □ a term whose meaning varies greatly □

Line	frequently proclaim that such products are safer and more nutritious than others.

(5)	The growing interest of consumers in the safety and nutritional quality of the

typical North American diet is a welcome development. However, much of this

interest has been sparked by sweeping claims that the food supply is unsafe or

inadequate in meeting nutritional needs. Although most of these claims are not

supported by scientific evidence, the preponderance of written material advancing

(10)	such claims makes it difficult for the general public to separate fact from fiction.

As a result, claims that eating a diet consisting entirely of organically grown foods

prevents or cures disease or provides other benefits to health have become widely

publicized and form the basis for folklore.

Almost daily the public is besieged by claims for "no-aging" diets, new vitamins,

(15)	and other wonder foods. There are numerous unsubstantiated reports that natural

vitamins are superior to synthetic ones, that fertilized eggs are nutritionally superior

to unfertilized eggs, that untreated grains are better than fumigated grains, and the like.

One thing that most organically grown food products seem to have in common is

that they cost more than conventionally grown foods. But in many cases consumers are

(20)	misled if they believe organic foods can maintain health and provide better nutritional

quality than conventionally grown foods. So there is real cause for concern if consumers,

particularly those with limited incomes, distrust the regular food supply and buy only

expensive organic foods instead.

23. The word "Advocates" in line 3 is closest in meaning to which of the following?

(A) Proponents

(B) Merchants

(C) Inspectors

(D) Consumers

24. In line 4, the word "others" refers to

(A) advantages

(B) advocates

(C) organic foods

(D) products

25. The "welcome development" mentioned in line 6 is an increase in

(A) interest in food safety and nutrition among North Americans

(B) the nutritional quality of the typical North American diet

(C) the amount of healthy food grown in North America

(D) the number of consumers in North America

26. According to the first paragraph, which of the following is true about

the term "organic food"?

(A) It is accepted by most nutritionists.

(B) It has been used only in recent years.

(C) It has no fixed meaning.

(D) It is seldom used by consumers.

27. The word "unsubstantiated" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) unbelievable

(B) uncontested

(C) unpopular

(D) unverified

28. The word "maintain" in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(A) improve

(B) monitor

(C) preserve

(D) restore

29. The author implies that there is cause for concern if consumers with

limited incomes buy organic foods instead of conventionally grown foods

because

(A) organic foods can be more expensive but are often no better than

conventionally grown foods

(B) many organic foods are actually less nutritious than similar conventionally

grown foods

(C) conventionally grown foods are more readily available than organic foods

(D) too many farmers will stop using conventional methods to grow food crops

30. According to the last paragraph, consumers who believe that organic foods

are better than conventionally grown foods are often

(A) careless

(B) mistaken

(C) thrifty

(D) wealthy

31. What is the author's attitude toward the claims made by advocates of health

foods?

(A) Very enthusiastic

(B) Somewhat favorable

(C) Neutral

(D) Skeptical

Questions 32-41

There are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient Greece. The one

most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved from ritual.

The argument for this view goes as follows. In the beginning, human beings viewed

Line	the natural forces of the world, even the seasonal changes, as unpredictable, and they

(5)	sought, through various means, to control these unknown and feared powers. Those

measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated

until they hardened into fixed rituals. Eventually stories arose which explained or

veiled the mysteries of the rites. As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but

the stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama.

(10)	Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that those rites

contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks, and costumes were almost

always used. Furthermore, a suitable site had to be provided for performances, and

when the entire community did not participate, a clear division was usually made

between the "acting area" and the "auditorium." In addition, there were performers,

(15)	and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment

of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task. Wearing mask and costumes, they

often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired

effect □ success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun □ as an actor

might. Eventually such dramatic representations were separated from religious

(20)	activities.

Another theory traces the theater's origin from the human interest in storytelling.

According to this view, tales (about the hunt, war, or other feats) are gradually

elaborated, at first through the use of impersonations, action, and dialogue by a narrator

and then through the assumption of each of the roles by a different person. A closely

(25)	related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and

gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds.

32. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The origins of theater

(B) The role of ritual in modern dance

(C) The importance of storytelling

(D) The variety of early religious activities

33. The word "they" in line 4 refers to

(A) seasonal changes

(B) natural forces

(C) theories

(D) human beings

34. What aspect of drama does the author discuss in the first paragraph?

(A) The reason drama is often unpredictable

(B) The seasons in which dramas were performed

(C) The connection between myths and dramatic plots

(D) The importance of costumes in early drama

35. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a common element of theater

and ritual?

(A) Dance	(B) Costumes

(C) Music	(D) Magic

36. The word "considerable" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) thoughtful

(B) substantial

(C) relational

(D) ceremonial

37. The word "enactment" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) establishment

(B) performance

(C) authorization

(D) season

38. The word "they" in line 16 refers to

(A) mistakes

(B) costumes

(C) animals

(D) performers

39. According to the passage, what is the manin difference between ritual

and drama?

(A) Ritual uses music whereas drama does not.

(B) Ritual is shorter than drama.

(C) Ritual requires fewer performers than drama.

(D) Ritual has a religious purpose and drama does not.

40. The passage supports which of the following statements?

(A) No one really knows how the theater began.

(B) Myths are no longer represented dramatically.

(C) Storytelling is an important part of dance.

(D) Dramatic activities require the use of costumes.

41. Where in the passage does the author discuss the separation of the

stage and the audience?

(A) Lines 8-9

(B) Lines 12-14

(C) Lines 19-20

(D) Lines 22-24

Questions 42 - 50

Staggering tasks confronted the people of the United States, North and South, when

the Civil War ended. About a million and a half soldiers from both sides had to be

demobilized, readjusted to civilian life, and reabsorbed by the devastated economy.

Line	Civil government also had to be put back on a peacetime basis and interference from

(5)	the military had to be stopped.

The desperate plight of the South has eclipsed the fact that reconstruction had to be

undertaken also in the North, though less spectacularly. Industries had to adjust to

peacetime conditions; factories had to be retooled for civilian needs.

Financial problems loomed large in both the North and the South. The national debt

(10)	had shot up from a modest $65 million in 1861, the year the war started, to nearly $3

billion in 1865, the year the war ended. This was a colossal sum for those days but one

that a prudent government could pay. At the same time, war taxes had to be reduced to

less burdensome levels.

Physical devastation caused by invading armies, chiefly in the South and border

(15)	states, had to be repaired. This herculean task was ultimately completed, but with

discouraging slowness.

Other important questions needed answering. What would be the future of the four

million black people who were freed from slavery? On what basis were the Southern

states to be brought back into the Union?

(20)	What of the Southern leaders, all of whom were liable to charges of treason? One

of these leaders, Jefferson Davis, president of the Southern Confederacy, was the

subject of an insulting popular Northern song, "Hang Jeff Davis from a Sour Apple

Tree," and even children sang it. Davis was temporarily chained in his prison cell

during the early days of his two-year imprisonment. But he and the other Southern

(25)	leaders were finally released, partly because it was unlikely that a jury from Virginia, a

Southern Confederate state, would convict them. All the leaders were finally pardoned

by President Johnson in 1868 in an effort to help reconstruction efforts proceed with as

little bitterness as possible.

42. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Wartime expenditures

(B) Problems facing the United States after the war

(C) Methods of repairing the damage caused by the war

(D) The results of government efforts to revive the economy

43. The word " Staggering" inline 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) specialized

(B) confusing

(C) various

(D) overwhelming

44. The word "devastated" in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) developing

(B) ruined

(C) complicated

(D) fragile

45. According to the passage, which of the following statements about the

damage in the South is correct?

(A) It was worse than in the North.

(B) The cost was less than expected.

(C) It was centered in the border states.

(D) It was remedied rather quickly.

46. The passage refers to all of the following as necessary steps following

the Civil War EXCEPT

(A) helping soldiers readjust

(B) restructuring industry

(C) returning government to normal

(D) increasing taxes

47. The word "task" in line 15 refers to

(A) raising the tax level

(B) sensible financial choices

(C) wise decisions about former slaves

(D) reconstructions of damaged areas

48. Why does the author mention a popular song in lines 22-23?

(A) To give an example of a Northern attitude towards the South

(B) To illustrate the Northern love of music

(C) To emphasize the cultural differences between the North and South

(D) To compare the Northern and Southern presidents

49. The word "them" in line 26 refers to

(A) charges

(B) leaders

(C) days

(D) irons

50. Which of the following can be inferred from the phrase "...it was unlikely

that a jury from Virginia, a Southern Confederate state, would convict

them"(lines 25-26)?

(A) Virginians felt betrayed by Jefferson Davis.

(B) A popular song insulted Virginia.

(C) Virginians were loyal to their leaders.

(D) All of the Virginia military leaders had been put in chains.

Test 7

Questions 1-10

In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related.

A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an

observed event could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic

Line	molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles

(5)	that are in constant motion.

A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observation, helps to predict events

that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design

experiments to test the theory. If observations confirm the scientists' predictions, the

theory is supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must

(10)	search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be

revised or rejected.

Science involves imagination and creative thinking as will as collecting information

and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician

Jules Henri Poincare said: "Science is built with facts just as a house is built with

(15)	bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks

can be called a house."

Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have

learned about a particular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist

comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible

(20)	solutions to the problem are formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.

In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist's

thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations,

and makes observations to test hypotheses. For without hypotheses, further investigation

lacks purpose and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated

into theories,

1. Which of the following is the main subject of the passage?

(A) The importance of models in scientific theories

(B) The place of theory and hypothesis in scientific investigation

(C) The sorts of facts that scientists find most interesting

(D) The ways that scientists perform different types of experiments

2. The word "related" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) connected

(B) described

(C) completed

(D) identified

3. The word "this" in line 3 refers to

(A) a good example

(B) an imaginary model

(C) the kinetic molecular theory

(D) an observed event

4. According to the second paragraph, a useful theory is one that helps

scientists to

(A) find errors in past experiments

(B) make predictions

(C) observe events

(D) publicize new findings

5. The word "supported" in line 9 is closest in meaning to

(A) finished                  (B) adjusted

(C) investigated	(D) upheld

6. Bricks are mentioned in lines 14-16 to indicate how

(A) mathematicians approach science

(B) building a house is like performing experiments

(C) science is more than a collection of facts

(D) scientific experiments have led to improved technology

7. In the fourth paragraph, the author implies that imagination is most

important to scientists when they

(A) evaluate previous work on a problem

(B) formulate possible solutions to a problem

(C) gather know facts

(D) close an investigation

8. In line 21, the author refers to a hypothesis as "a leap into the unknown□

in order to show that hypotheses

(A) are sometimes ill-conceived

(B) can lead to dangerous results

(C) go beyond available facts

(D) require effort to formulate

9. In the last paragraph, what does the author imply is a major function of

hypotheses ?

(A) Sifting through known facts

(B) Communicating a scientist's thoughts to others

(C) Providing direction for scientific research

(D) Linking together different theories

10. Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?

(A) Theories are simply imaginary models of past events.

(B) It is better to revise a hypothesis than to reject it.

(C) A scientist's most difficult task is testing hypotheses.

(D) A good scientist needs to be creative

Questions 11-21

By the mid-nineteenth century, the term "icebox" had entered the American

language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the

United States. The ice trade grew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels,

Line	taverns, and hospitals, and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh

(5)	fish, and butter. After the Civil War(1861-1865), as ice was used to refrigerate freight

cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880, half the ice sold in New York,

Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to

families for their own use. This had become possible because a new household

convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented.

(10)	Making an efficient ice box was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early

nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a

science of refrigeration, was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best

icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was

the melting of the ice that performed the cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to

(15)	economize ice included wrapping the ice in blankets, which kept the ice from doing its

job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve the delicate

balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox.

But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on

the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for

(20)	which the village of Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his

own design to transport his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the

rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his

butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks. One advantage of his icebox,

Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in

(25)	order to keep their produce cool.

11. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The influence of ice on the diet

(B) The development of refrigeration

(C) The transportation of goods to market

(D) Sources of ice in the nineteenth century

12. According to the passage, when did the word "icebox" become part of

the language of the United States?

(A) In 1803

(B) Sometime before 1850

(C) During the Civil War

(D) Near the end of the nineteenth century

13. The phrase "forward-looking" in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) progressive	(B) popular

(C) thrifty	(D) well-established

14. The author mentions fish in line 5 because

(A) many fish dealers also sold ice

(B) fish was shipped in refrigerated freight cars

(C) fish dealers were among the early commercial users of ice

(D) fish was not part of the ordinary person's diet before the invention

of the icebox

15. The word "it" in line 6 refers to

(A) fresh meat

(B) the Civil War

(C) ice

(D) a refrigerator

16. According to the passage, which of the following was an obstacle to the

development of the icebox?

(A) Competition among the owners of refrigerated freight cars

(B) The lack of a network for the distribution of ice

(C) The use of insufficient insulation

(D) Inadequate understanding of physics

17. The word "rudimentary" in line 12 is closest in meaning to

(A) growing

(B) undeveloped

(C) necessary

(D) uninteresting

18. According to the information in the second paragraph, an ideal

icebox would

(A) completely prevent ice from melting

(B) stop air from circulating

(C) allow ice to melt slowly

(D) use blankets to conserve ice

19. The author describes Thomas Moore as having been "on the right

track" (line18 -19) to indicate that

(A) the road to the market passed close to Moore's farm

(B) Moore was an honest merchant

(C) Moore was a prosperous farmer

(D) Moore's design was fairly successful

20. According to the passage, Moore's icebox allowed him to

(A) charge more for his butter

(B) travel to market at night

(C) manufacture butter more quickly

(D) produce ice all year round

21. The "produce" mentioned in line 25 could include

(A) iceboxes

(B) butter

(C) ice

(D) markets

Questions 22-23

Aside from perpetuating itself, the sole purpose of the American Academy and

Institute of Arts and Letters is to "foster, assist and sustain an interest" in literature,

music, and art. This it does by enthusiastically handing out money. Annual cash awards

Line	are given to deserving artists in various categories of creativity: architecture, musical

(5)	composition, theater, novels, serious poetry, light verse, painting, sculpture. One award

subsidizes a promising American writer's visit to Rome. There is even an award for a

very good work of fiction that failed commercially □ once won by the young John

Updike for the Poorhouse Fair and, more recently, by Alice Walker for In Love and

Trouble.

(10)	The awards and prizes total about $750,000 a year, but most of them range in size

from $5,000 to $12,500, a welcome sum to many young practitioners whose work may

not bring in that much money in a year. One of the advantages of the awards is that

many go to the struggling artists, rather than to those who are already successful.

Members of the Academy and Institute are not eligible for any cash prizes. Another

(15)	advantage is that, unlike the National Endowment for the Arts or similar institutions

throughout the world, there is no government money involved.

Awards are made by committee. Each of the three departments □ Literature

(120 members), Art(83), Music(47) □ has a committee dealing with its own field.

Committee membership rotates every year, so that new voices and opinions are

(20)	constantly heard.

The most financially rewarding of all the Academy-Institute awards are the Mildred

and Harold Strauss Livings. Harold Strauss, a devoted editor at Alfred A. Knopf, the

New York publishing house, and Mildred Strauss, his wife, were wealthy and childless.

They left the Academy-Institute a unique bequest : for five consecutive years, two

(25)	distinguished (and financially needy) writers would receive enough money so they

could devote themselves entirely to "prose literature"(no plays, no poetry, and no

paying job that might distract). In 1983, the first Strauss Livings of $35,000 a year

went to short-story writer Raymond Carver and novelist-essayist Cynthia Ozick.  By

1988, the fund had grown enough so that two winners, novelists Diane Johnson and

(30)	Robert Stone, each got $50,000 a year for five years.

22. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Award-winning works of literature

(B) An organization that supports the arts

(C) The life of an artist

(D) Individual patrons of the arts

23. The word "sole" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) only

(B) honorable

(C) common

(D) official

24. The word "subsidizes" in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(A) assures

(B) finances

(C) schedules

(D) publishes

25. Which of the following can be inferred about Alice Walker's book

In Love and Trouble ?

(A) It sold more copies than The Poorhouse Fair.

(B) It described the author's visit to Rome.

(C) It was a commercial success.

(D) It was published after The Poorhouse Fair.

26. Each year the awards and prizes offered by the Academy-Institute

total approximately

(A) $ 12,500

(B) $ 35,000

(C) $ 50,000

(D) $ 750,000

27.  The word "may" in line 13 refers to

(A) practitioners

(B) advantages

(C) awards

(D) strugglers

28. What is one of the advantages of the Academy-Institute awards mentioned

in the passage?

(A) They are subsidized by the government.

(B) They are often given to unknown artists.

(C) They are also given to Academy-Institute members.

(D) They influence how the National Endowment for the Arts makes its

award decisions.

29. The word "rotates" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) alternate

(B) participates

(C) decides

(D) meets

30. The word "they" in line 25 refers to

(A) Mildred and Harold Strauss

(B) years

(C) writers

(D) plays

31. Where in the passage does the author cite the goal of the Academy-Institute?

(A) Lines 1-3

(B) Lines 12-13

(C) Lines 19-20

(D) Lines 22-23

Questions 32-42

Archaeological records □ paintings, drawings, and carvings of humans engaged in

activities involving the use of hands □ indicate that humans have been predominantly

right-handed for more than 5,000 years. In ancient Egyptian artwork, for example, the

Line	right-hand is depicted as the dominant one in about 90percent of the examples. Fracture

(5)	or wear patterns on tools also indicate that a majority of ancient people were right-handed.

Cro-Magnon cave paintings some 27,000years old commonly show outlines of human

hands made by placing one hand against the cave wall and applying paint with the

other. Children today make similar outlines of their hands with crayons on paper. With

few exceptions, left hands of Cro-Magnons are displayed on cave walls, indicating that

(10)	the paintings were usually done by right-handers.

Anthropological evidence pushes the record of handedness in early human ancestors

back to at least 1.4 million years ago. One important line of evidence comes from

flaking patterns of stone cores used in toolmaking: implements flaked with a

clockwise motion (indicating a right-handed toolmaker) can be distinguished from

(15)	those flaked with a counter-clockwise rotation (indicating a left-handed toolmaker).

Even scratches found on fossil human teeth offer clues. Ancient humans are thought

to have cut meat into strips by holding it between their teeth and slicing it with stone

knives, as do the present-day Inuit. Occasionally the knives slip and leave scratches on

the users' teeth. Scratches made with a left-to-right stroke direction (by right-handers)

(20)	are more common than scratches in the opposite direction (made by left-handers).

Still other evidence comes from cranial morphology: scientists think that physical

differences between the right and left sides of the interior of the skull indicate subtle

physical differences between the two sides of the brain. The variation between the

hemispheres corresponds to which side of the body is used to perform specific

(25)	activities. Such studies, as well as studies of tool use, indicate that right- or left-sided

dominance is not exclusive to modern Homo sapiens. Populations of Neanderthals,

such as Homo erectus and Homo habilis, seem to have been predominantly

right-handed, as we are.

32.  What is the main idea of the passage?

(A) Human ancestors became predominantly right-handed when

they began to use tools.

(B) It is difficult to interpret the significance of anthropological evidence

concerning tool use.

(C) Humans and their ancestors have been predominantly right-handed

for over a million years.

(D) Human ancestors were more skilled at using both hands than modern

humans.

33.  The word "other" in line 8 refers to

(A) outline	(B) hand

(C) wall	(D) paint

34. What does the author say about Cro-Magnon paintings of hands?

(A) Some are not very old.

(B) It is unusual to see such paintings.

(C) Many were made by children.

(D) The artists were mostly right-handed.

35. The word "implements" in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(A) tools	(B) designs

(C) examples	(D) pieces

36. When compared with implements "flaked with a counter-clockwise rotation" (line15),

it can be inferred that "implements flaked with a clockwise motion" (lines 13-14) are

(A) more common

(B) larger

(C) more sophisticated

(D) older

37. The word "clues" in line 16 is closest in meaning to

(A) solutions

(B) details

(C) damage

(D) information

38. The fact that the Inuit cut meat by holding it between their teeth is significant

because

(A) the relationship between handedness and scratches on fossil human teeth can

be verified

(B) it emphasizes the differences between contemporary humans and their ancestors

(C) the scratch patterns produced by stone knives vary significantly from patterns

produced by modern knives

(D) it demonstrates that ancient humans were not skilled at using tools

39. The word "hemispheres" in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) differences	(B) sides

(C) activities	(D) studies

40. Why does the author mention Homo erectus and Habilis in line 27

(A) To contrast them with modern humans

(B) To explain when human ancestors began to make tools

(C) To show that early humans were also predominantly right-handed

(D) To prove that the population of Neanderthals was very large

41. All of the following are mentioned as types of evidence concerning

handedness EXCEPT

(A) ancient artwork

(B) asymmetrical skulls

(C) studies of tool use

(D) fossilized hand bones

42. Which of the following conclusions is suggested by the evidence from cranial

morphology(line 21)?

(A) Differences in the hemispheres of the brain probably came about relatively recently

(B) There may be a link between handedness and differences in the brain's hemispheres.

(C) Left-handedness was somewhat more common among Neanderthals.

(D) Variation between the brain's hemispheres was not evident in the skulls of Homo erectus

and Homo habilis.

Questions 43-50

Plants are subject to attack and infection by a remarkable variety of symbiotic

species and have evolved a diverse array of mechanisms designed to frustrate the

potential colonists. These can be divided into preformed or passive defense mechanisms

Line	and inducible or active systems. Passive plant defense comprises physical and chemical

(5)	barriers that prevent entry of pathogens, such as bacteria, or render tissues unpalatable

or toxic to the invader. The external surfaces of plants, in addition to being covered by

an epidermis and a waxy cuticle, often carry spiky hairs known as trichomes, which

either prevent feeding by insects or may even puncture and kill insect larvae. Other

trichomes are sticky and glandular and effectively trap and immobilize insects.

(10)	If the physical barriers of the plant are breached, then preformed chemicals may

inhibit or kill the intruder, and plant tissues contain a diverse array of toxic or

potentially toxic substances, such as resins, tannins, glycosides, and alkaloids, many of

which are highly effective deterrents to insects that feed on plants. The success of the

Colorado beetle in infesting potatoes, for example, seems to be correlated with its high

(15)	tolerance to alkaloids that normally repel potential pests. Other possible chemical

defenses, while not directly toxic to the parasite, may inhibit some essential step in the

establishment of a parasitic relationship. For example, glycoproteins in plant cell walls

may inactivate enzymes that degrade cell walls. These enzymes are often produced by

bacteria and fungi.

(20)	Active plant defense mechanisms are comparable to the immune system of

vertebrate animals, although the cellular and molecular bases are fundamentally

different. Both, however, are triggered in reaction to intrusion, implying that the host

has some means of recognizing the presence of a foreign organism. The most dramatic

example of an inducible plant defense reaction is the hypersensitive response. In the

(25)	hypersensitive response, cells undergo rapid necrosis □ that is, they become diseased

and die □ after being penetrated by a parasite ; the parasite itself subsequently ceases to

grow and is therefore restricted to one or a few cells around the entry site. Several

theories have been put forward to explain the bases of hypersensitive resistance.

43. What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The success of parasites in resisting plant defense mechanisms

(B) Theories on active plant defense mechanisms

(C) How plant defense mechanisms function

(D) How the immune system of animals and the defense mechanisms

of plants differ

44. The phrase "subject to" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) susceptible to

(B) classified by

(C) attractive to

(D) strengthened by

45. The word "puncture" in line 8 is closest in meaning to

(A) pierce

(B) pinch

(C) surround

(D) cover

46. The word "which" in line 13 refers to

(A) tissues

(B) substances

(C) barriers

(D) insects

47. Which of the following substances does the author mention as NOT

necessarily being toxic to the Colorado beetle?

(A) Resins

(B) Tannins

(C) Glycosides

(D) Alkaloids

48. Why does the author mention "glycoproteins" in line 17 ?

(A) To compare plant defense mechanisms to the immune system of animals

(B) To introduce the discussion of active defense mechanisms in plants

(C) To illustrate how chemicals function in plant defense

(D) To emphasize the importance of physical barriers in plant defense

49. The word "dramatic" in line 23 could best be replaced by

(A) striking

(B) accurate

(C) consistent

(D) appealing

50. Where in the passage dose the author describe an active plant-defense

reaction?

(A) Lines 1-3

(B) Lines 4-6

(C) Lines 15-17

(D) Lines 24-27

Test 8

Questions 1-9

Another early Native American tribe in what is now the southwestern part of the

United States was the Anasazi. By A.D. 800 the Anasazi Indians were constructing

multistory pueblos - massive, stone apartment compounds. Each one was virtually a

Line	stone town, which is why the Spanish would later call them pueblos, the Spanish word

(5)	for towns. These pueblos represent one of the Anasazis' supreme achievements. At

least a dozen large stone houses took shape below the bluffs of Chaco Canyon in

northwest New Mexico. They were built with masonry walls more than a meter thick

and adjoining apartments to accommodate dozens even hundreds, of families. The

largest, later named Pueblo Bonito (Pretty Town) by the Spanish, rose in five terraced

(10)	stories, contained more than 800 rooms, and could have housed a population of 1,000

or more.

Besides living quarters, each pueblo included one or more kivas □ circular

underground chambers faced with stone. They functioned as sanctuaries where the

elders met to plan festival, perform ritual dances, settle pueblo affairs, and impart

(15)	tribal lore to the younger generation. Some kivas were enormous. Of the 30 or so at

Pueblo Bonito, two measured 20 meters across. They contained niches for ceremonial

objects, a central fire pit, and holes in the floor for communicating with the spirits of

tribal ancestors.

Each pueblo represented an astonishing amount of well-organized labor. Using only

(20)	stone and wood tools, and without benefit of wheels or draft animals, the builders

quarried ton upon ton of sandstone from the canyon walls, cut it into small blocks,

hauled the blocks to the construction site, and fitted them together with mud mortar.

Roof beams of pine or fir had to be carried from logging areas in the mountain forests

(25)	many kilometers away. Then, to connect the pueblos and to give access to the

surrounding tableland, the architects laid out a system of public roads with stone

staircases for ascending cliff faces. In time, the roads reached out to more than

80 satellite villages within a 60-kilometer radius.

1. What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The Anasazi pueblos

(B) Anasazi festivals of New Mexico

(C) The organization of the Anasazi tribe

(D) The use of Anasazi sanctuaries

2. The word "supreme" in line 5 is closest in meaning to

(A) most common

(B) most outstanding

(C) most expensive

(D) most convenient

3. The word "They" in line 7 refers to

(A) houses

(B) bluffs

(C) walls

(D) families

4. The author mentions that Pueblo Bonito had more than 800 rooms

as an example of which of the following?

(A) How overcrowded the pueblos could be

(B) How many ceremonial areas it contained

(C) How much sandstone was needed to build it

(D) How big a pueblo could be

5. The word "settle" in line 14 is closest in meaning to

(A) sink

(B) decide

(C) clarify

(D) locate

6. It can be inferred from passage that building a pueblo probably

(A) required many workers

(B) cost a lot of money

(C) involved the use of farm animals

(D) relied on sophisticated technology

7. The word "ascending" in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) arriving at

(B) carving

(C) connecting

(D) climbing

8. It can be inferred from the passage that in addition to pueblos the

Anasazis were skilled at building which of the following?

(A) Roads

(B) Barns

(C) Monuments

(D) Water systems

9. The pueblos are considered one of the Anasazis' supreme achievements

for all of the following reasons EXCEPT that they were

(A) very large

(B) located in forests

(C) built with simple tools

(D) connected in a systematic way

Questions 10-20

Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as "silent,"

the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning,

music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment ; when the Lumiere films were

Line	shown at the first public film exhibition in the Unites States in February 1896, they

(5)	were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played

bore no special relationship to the films ; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient.

Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn

film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their

pieces to the mood of the film.

(10)	As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist,

would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small

orchestras were formed. For a number of years the selection of music for each film

program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and

very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste

(15)	so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. Since the

conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown (if,

indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement

was normally improvised in the greatest hurry.

To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of

(20)	publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. In 1909, for example, the Edison

Company began issuing with their films such indications of mood as "pleasant," "sad,"

"lively." The suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet

containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise

directions to show where one piece led into the next.

(25)	Certain films had music especially composed for them. The most famous of these

early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W. Griffith's film Birth of

a Nation, which was released in 1915.

10. The passage mainly discusses music that was

(A) performed before the showing of a film

(B) played during silent films

(C) specifically composed for certain movie theaters

(D) recorded during film exhibitions

11. What can be inferred from the passage about the majority of films

made after 1927 ?

(A) They were truly "silent."

(B) They were accompanied by symphonic orchestras.

(C) They incorporated the sound of the actors' voices.

(D) They corresponded to specific musical compositions.

12. The word "solemn" in line 7 is closest in meaning to

(A) simple

(B) serious

(C) short

(D) silent

13. It can be inferred that orchestra conductors who worked in movie

theaters needed to

(A) be able to play many instruments

(B) have pleasant voices

(C) be familiar with a wide variety of music

(D) be able to compose original music

14. The word "them" in line 17 refers to

(A) years

(B) hands

(C) pieces

(D) films

15. According to the passage, what kind of business was the Edison Company?

(A) It produced electricity.

(B) It distributed films.

(C) It published musical arrangements.

(D) It made musical instruments.

16. It may be inferred from the passage that the first musical cue sheets

appeared around

(A) 1896

(B) 1909

(C) 1915

(D) 1927

17. Which of the following notations is most likely to have been included on

a musical cue sheet of the early 1900's?

(A) "Calm, peaceful"

(B) "Piano, violin"

(C) "Key of C major"

(D) "Directed by D.W. Griffith"

18. The word " composed" in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) selected

(B) combined

(C) played

(D) created

19. The word "scores" in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) totals

(B) successes

(C) musical compositions

(D) groups of musicians

20. The passage probably continues with a discussion of

(A) famous composers of the early twentieth century

(B) other films directed by D.W. Griffith

(C) silent films by other directors

(D) the music in Birth of a Nation

Questions 21-30

The Earth comprises three principal layers : the dense, iron-rich core, the mantle

made of silicate rocks that are semimolten at depth, and the thin, solid-surface crust.

There are two kinds of crust, a lower and denser oceanic crust and an upper, lighter

Line	continental crust found over only about 40 percent of the Earth's surface. The rocks

(5)	of the crust are of very different ages. Some continental rocks are over 3,000 million

years old, while those of the ocean floor are less then 200 million years old. The crusts

and the top, solid part of the mantle, totaling about 70 to 100 kilometers in thickness,

at present appear to consist of about 15 rigid plates, 7 of which are very large. These

plates move over the semimolten lower mantle to produce all of the major topographical

(10)	features of the Earth. Active zones where intense deformation occurs are confined to

the narrow, interconnecting boundaries of contact of the plates.

There are three main types of zones of contact : spreading contacts where plates move

apart, converting contacts where plates move towards each other, and transform

contacts where plates slide past each other. New oceanic crust is formed along one or

(15)	more margins of each plate by material issuing from deeper layers of the Earth's crust,

for example, by volcanic eruptions of lava at midocean ridges. If at such a spreading

contact the two plates support continents, a rift is formed that will gradually widen and

become flooded by the sea. The Atlantic Ocean formed like this as the American and

Afro-European plates moved in opposite directions. At the same time at margins of

(20)	converging plates, the oceanic crust is being reabsorbed by being subducted into the

mantle and remelted beneath the ocean trenches. When two plates carrying continents

collide, the continental blocks, too light to be drawn down, continue to float and

therefore buckle to form a mountain chain along the length of the margin of the plates.

21. The word "comprises" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) adapts to

(B) benefits from

(C) consists of

(D) focuses on

22. According to the passage, on approximately what percent of the

Earth's surface is the continental crust found?

(A) 15

(B) 40

(C) 70

(D) 100

23. The word "which" in line 8 refers to

(A) crusts

(B) kilometers

(C) plates

(D) continents

24. The word "intense" in line 10 is closest in meaning to

(A) surface

(B) sudden

(C) rare

(D) extreme

25. What does the second paragraph of the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The major mountain chains of the Earth

(B) Processes that create the Earth's surface features

(C) The composition of the ocean floors

(D) The rates at which continents move

26. Which of the following drawings best represents a transform contact (line 13-14)?

27. The word "margins" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) edges

(B) peaks

(C) interiors

(D) distances

28. The word "support" in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) separate

(B) create

(C) reduce

(D) hold

29. According to the passage, mountain ranges are formed then

(A) the crust is remelted

(B) two plates separate

(C) a rift is flooded

(D) continental plate collide

30. Where in the passage does the author describe how oceans are formed?

(A) Lines 3-4

(B) Lines 6-8

(C) Lines 16-18

(D) Lines 19-21

Questions 31-39

Coincident with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats has

been a growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity, the number of

species in a particular ecosystem, to the health of the Earth and human well-being.

Line	Much has been written about the diversity of terrestrial organisms, particularly the

(5)	exceptionally rich life associated with tropical rain-forest habitats. Relatively little has

been said, however, about diversity of life in the sea even though coral reef systems are

comparable to rain forests in terms of richness of life.

An alien exploring Earth would probably give priority to the planet's dominant,

most-distinctive feature □ the ocean. Humans have a bias toward land that sometimes

(10)	gets in the way of truly examining global issues. Seen from far away, it is easy to

realize that landmasses occupy only one-third of the Earth's surface. Given that two-

thirds of the Earth's surface is water and that marine life lives at all levels of the ocean,

the total three-dimensional living space of the ocean is perhaps 100 times greater than

that of land and contains more than 90 percent of all life on Earth even though the

(15)	ocean has fewer distinct species.

The fact that half of the known species are thought to inhabit the world's rain forests

does not seem surprising, considering the huge numbers of insects that comprise the

bulk of the species. One scientist found many different species of ants in just one tree

from a rain forest. While every species is different from every other species, their

(20)	genetic makeup constrains them to be insects and to share similar characteristics with

750,000 species of insects. If basic, broad categories such as phyla and classes are

given more emphasis than differentiating between species, then the greatest diversity of

life is unquestionably the sea. Nearly every major type of plant and animal has some

representation there.

(25)	To appreciate fully the diversity and abundance of life in the sea, it helps to think

small. Every spoonful of ocean water contains life, on the order of 100 to 100,000

bacterial cells plus assorted microscopic plants and animals, including larvae of

organisms ranging from sponges and corals to starfish and clams and much more.

31. What is the main point of the passage?

(A) Humans are destroying thousands of species.

(B) There are thousands of insect species.

(C) The sea is even richer in life than the rain forests.

(D) Coral reefs are similar to rain forests.

32. The word "appreciation" in line 2 is closest in meaning to

(A) ignorance

(B) recognition

(C) tolerance

(D) forgiveness

33. Why does the author compare rain forests and coral reefs(lines 4-7) ?

(A) They are approximately the same size.

(B) They share many similar species.

(C) Most of their inhabitants require water.

(D) Both have many different forms of life.

34. The word "bias" in line 9 is closest in meaning to

(A) concern

(B) disadvantage

(C) attitude

(D) prejudice

35. The passage suggests that most rain forest species are

(A) insects

(B) bacteria

(C) mammals

(D) birds

36. The word "there" in line 24 refers to

(A) the sea

(B) the rain forests

(C) a tree

(D) the Earth's surface

37. The author argues that there is more diversity of life in the sea than in the

rain forests because

(A) more phyla and classes of life are represented in the sea

(B) there are too many insects to make meaningful distinctions

(C) many insect species are too small to divide into categories

(D) marine life-forms reproduce at a faster rate

38. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an example of microscopic sea life?

(A) Sponges

(B) Coral

(C) Starfish

(D) Shrimp

39. Which of the following conclusions is supported by the passage?

(A) Ocean life is highly adaptive.

(B) More attention needs to be paid to preserving ocean species and habitats.

(C) Ocean life is primarily composed of plants.

(D) The sea is highly resistant to the damage done by pollutants.

Questions 40-50

What geologists call the Basin and Range Province in the United States roughly

coincides in its northern portions with the geographic province known as the Great

Basin. The Great Basin is hemmed in on the west by the Sierra Nevada and on the east

Line	by the Rocky Mountains; it has no outlet to the sea. The prevailing winds in the Great

(5)	Basin are from the west. Warm, moist air from the Pacific Ocean is forced upward as it

crosses the Sierra Nevada. At the higher altitudes it cools and the moisture it carries is

precipitated as rain or snow on the western slopes of the mountains. That which

reaches the Basin is air wrung dry of moisture. What little water falls there as rain or

snow, mostly in the winter months, evaporates on the broad, flat desert floors. It is,

(10)	therefore, an environment in which organisms battle for survival. Along the rare

watercourses, cottonwoods and willows eke out a sparse existence. In the upland

ranges, pi□on pines and junipers struggle to hold their own.

But the Great Basin has not always been so arid. Many of its dry, closed depressions

were once filled with water. Owens Valley, Panamint Valley, and Death Valley were

(15)	once a string of interconnected lakes. The two largest of the ancient lakes of the Great

Basin were Lake Lahontan and Lake Bonneville. The Great Salt Lake is all that

remains of the latter, and Pyramid Lake is one of the last briny remnants of the former.

There seem to have been several periods within the last tens of thousands of

years when water accumulated in these basins. The rise and fall of the lakes were

(20)	undoubtedly linked to the advances and retreats of the great ice sheets that covered

much of the northern part of the North American continent during those times. Climatic

changes during the Ice Ages sometimes brought cooler, wetter weather to midlatitude

deserts worldwide, including those of the Great Basin. The broken valleys of the Great

Basin provided ready receptacles for this moisture.

40. What is the geographical relationship between the Basin and Range

Province and the Great Basin?

(A) The Great Basin is west of the Basin and Range Province.

(B) The Great Basin is larger than the Basin and Range Province

(C) The Great Basin is in the northern part of the Basin and Range Province.

(D) The Great Basin is mountainous ; the Basin and Range Province is flat desert.

41. According to the passage, what does the Great Basin lack?

(A) Snow

(B) Dry air

(C) Winds from the west

(D) Access to the ocean

42. The word "prevailing" in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) most frequent	(B) occasional

(C) gentle	(D) most dangerous

43. It can be inferred that the climate in the Great Basin is dry because

(A) the weather patterns are so turbulent

(B) the altitude prevents precipitation

(C) the winds are not strong enough to carry moisture

(D) precipitation falls in the nearby mountains

44. The word "it" in line 5 refers to

(A) Pacific Ocean

(B) air

(C) west

(D) the Great Basin

45. Why does the author mention cottonwoods and willows in line 11?

(A) To demonstrate that certain trees require a lit of water

(B) To give examples of trees that are able to survive in a difficult environment

(C) To show the beauty of the landscape of the Great Basin

(D) To assert that there are more living organisms in the Great Basin than there

used to be

46. Why does the author mention Owens Valley, Panamint Valley, and Death Valley

in the second paragraph?

(A) To explain their geographical formation

(B) To give examples of depressions that once contained water

(C) To compare the characteristics of the valleys with the characteristics of the lakes

(D) To explain what the Great Basin is like today

47. The words "the former" in line 17 refer to

(A) Lake Bonneville

(B) Lake Lahontan

(C) the Great Salt Lake

(D) Pyramid Lake

48. The word "accumulated" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(A) dried

(B) flooded

(C) collected

(D) evaporated

49. According to the passage, the Ice Ages often brought about

(A) desert formation

(B) warmer climates

(C) broken valleys

(D) wetter weather

50. Where in the passage does the author explain how lakes probably formed

in the Great Basin?

(A) Lines 6-7

(B) Lines 10-11

(C) Lines 13-14

(D) Lines 21-24

Test 9

Questions 1-12

Before the 1500's, the western plains of North America were dominated by farmers.

One group, the Mandans, lived in the upper Missouri River country, primarily in

present-day North Dakota. They had large villages of houses built close together. The

Line	tight arrangement enabled the Mandans to protect themselves more easily from the

(5)	attacks of others who might seek to obtain some of the food these highly capable

farmers stored from one year to the next.

The women had primary responsibility for the fields. They had to excercise

considerable skill to produce the desired results, for their northern location meant

fleeting growing seasons. Winter often lingered ; autumn could be ushered in by

(10)	severe frost. For good measure, during the spring and summer, drought, heat, hail,

grasshoppers, and other frustrations might await the wary grower.

Under such conditions, Mandan women had to grow maize capable of weathering

adversity. They began as early as it appeared feasible to do so in the spring, clearing

the land, using fire to clear stubble from the fields and then planting. From this point

(15)	until the first green corn could be harvested, the crop required labor and vigilance.

Harvesting proceeded in two stages. In August the Mandans picked a smaller

amount of the crop before it had matured fully. This green corn was boiled, dried, and

shelled, with some of the maize slated for immediate consumption and the rest stored

in animal-skin bags. Later in the fall, the people picked the rest of the corn. They saved

(20)	the best of the harvest for seeds or for trade, with the remainder eaten right away or

stored for later use in underground reserves. With appropriate banking of the extra

food, the Mandans protected themselves against the disaster of crop failure and

accompanying hunger.

The women planted another staple, squash, about the first of June, and harvested it

(25)	near the time of the green corn harvest. After they picked it, they sliced it, dried it, and

strung the slices before they stored them. Once again, they saved the seed from the best

of the year's crop. The Mandans also grew sunflowers and tobacco ; the latter was the

particular task of the older men.

1. What is the main topic of the passage ?

(A) The agricultural activities of a North American Society

(B) Various ways corn can be used

(C) The problems encountered by farmers who specialize in growing one crop

(A) Weather conditions on the western plains

2. The Mandans built their houses close together in order to

(A) guard their supplies of food

(B) protect themselves against the weather

(C) allow more room for growing corn

(A) share farming implements

3. The word "enabled" in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(A) covered

(B) reminded

(C) helped

(A) isolated

4. The word "considerable" in line 8 is closest in meaning to

(A) planning	(B) much

(C) physical	(A) new

5. Why does the author believe that the Mandans were skilled farmers ?

(A) They developed effective fertilizers.

(B) They developed new varieties of corn.

(C) They could grow crops in most types of soil.

(A) They could grow crops despite adverse weather.

6. The word "consumption" in line 18 is closest in meaning to

(A) decay	(B) planting

(C) eating	(A) conversion

7. Which of the following processes does the author imply was done by both

men and women ?

(A) Clearing fields

(B) Planting corn

(C) Harvesting corn

(A) Harvesting squash

8.  The word "disaster" in line 22 is closest in meaning to

(A) control

(B) catastrophe

(C) avoidance

(A) history

9. According to the passage, the Mandans preserved their food by

(A) smoking

(B) drying

(C) freezing

(A) salting

10. The word "it" in line 25 refers to

(A) June

(B) corn

(C) time

(A) squash

11. Which of the following crops was cultivated primarily by men ?

(A) Corn

(B) Squash

(C) Sunflower

(A) Tobacco

12. Throughout the passage, the author implies that the Mandans

(A) planned for the future

(B) valued individuality

(C) were open to strangers

(A) were very adventurous

Questions 13-21

The elements other than hydrogen and helium exist in such small quantities that it is

accurate to say that the universe is somewhat more than 25 percent helium by weight

and somewhat less than 75 percent hydrogen.

Line	Astronomers have measured the abundance of helium throughout our galaxy and in

(5)	other galaxies as well. Helium has been found in old stars, in relatively young ones, in

interstellar gas, and in the distant objects known as quasars. Helium nuclei have also

been found to be constituents of cosmic rays that fall on the earth (cosmic "rays" are

not really a form of radiation; they consist of rapidly moving particles of numerous

different kinds). It doesn't seem to make very much difference where the helium is

(10)	found. Its relative abundance never seems to vary much. In some places, there may be

slightly more of it ; in others, slightly less, but the ratio of helium to hydrogen nuclei

always remains about the same.

Helium is created in stars. In fact, nuclear reactions that convert hydrogen to helium

are responsible for most of the energy that stars produce. However, the amount of

(15)	helium that could have been produced in this manner can be calculated, and it turns out

to be no more than a few percent. The universe has not existed long enough for this

figure to be significantly greater. Consequently, if the universe is somewhat more than

25 percent helium now, then it must have been about 25 percent helium at a time near

the beginning.

(20)	However, when the universe was less than one minute old, no helium could have

existed. Calculations indicate that before this time temperatures were too high and

particles of matter were moving around much too rapidly. It was only after the one-

minute point that helium could exist. By this time, the universe had cooled so sufficiently

that neutrons and protons could stick together. But the nuclear reactions that led to the

(25)	formations of helium went on for only relatively short time. By the time the universe

was a few minutes old, helium production had effectively ceased.

13. What does the passage mainly explain ?

(A) How stars produce energy

(B) The difference between helium and hydrogen

(C) When most of the helium in the universe was formed

(D) Why hydrogen is abundant

14. According to the passage, helium is

(A) the second-most abundant element in the universe

(B) difficult to detect

(C) the oldest element in the universe

(D) the most prevalent element in quasars

15. The word "constituents" in line 7 is closest in meaning to

(A) relatives	(B) causes

(C) components	(A) targets

16. Why does the author mention "cosmic rays" in line 7 ?

(A) As part of a list of things containing helium

(B) As an example of an unsolved astronomical puzzle

(C) To explain how the universe began

(A) To explain the abundance of hydrogen in the universe

17. The word "vary" in line 10 is closest in meaning to

(A) mean

(B) stretch

(C) change

(A) include

18. The creation of helium within stars

(A) cannot be measured

(B) produces energy

(C) produces hydrogen as a by-product

(A) causes helium to be much more abundant in old stars

than in young stars

19. The word "calculated" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(A) ignored

(B) converted

(C) increased

(A) determined

20. Most of th helium in the universe was formed

(A) in interstellar space

(B) in a very short time

(C) during the first minute of the universe's existence

(A) before most of the hydrogen

21. The word "ceased" in line 26 is closest in meaning to

(A) extended

(B) performed

(C) taken hold

(A) stopped

Questions 22-31

In colonial America, people generally covered their beds with decorative quilts

resembling those of the lands from which the quilters had come. Wealthy and socially

prominent settlers made quilts of the English style, cut from large lengths of cloth of

Line	the same color and texture rather than stitched together from smaller pieces. They made

(5)	these until the advent of the Revolutionary War in 1775, when everything English

came to be frowned upon.

Among the whole-cloth quilts made by these wealthy settlers during the early period

are those now called linsey-woolseys. This term was usually applied to a fabric of wool

and linen used in heavy clothing and quilted petticoats worn in the wintertime. Despite

(10)	the name, linsey-woolsey bedcovers did not often contain linen. Rather, they were

made of a top layer of woolen or glazed worsted wool fabric, consisting of smooth,

compact yarn from long wool fibers, dyed dark blue, green, or brown, with a bottom

layer of a coarser woolen material, either natural or a shade of yellow. The filling was

a soft layer of wool which had been cleaned and separated and the three layers were

(15)	held together with decorative stitching done with homespun linen thread. Later, cotton

thread was used for this purpose. The design of the stitching was often a simple one

composed of interlocking circles or crossed diagonal lines giving a diamond pattern.

This type of heavy, warm, quilted bedcover was so large that it hung to the floor.

The corners were cut out at the foot of the cover so that the quilt fit snugly around the tall

(20)	four-poster beds of the 1700's, which differed from those of today in that they were

shorter and wider ; they were short because people slept in a semi-sitting position with

many bolsters and pillows, and wide because each bed often slept three or more. The

linsey-woolsey covering was found in the colder regions of the country because of the

warmth it afforded. There was no central heating and most bedrooms did not have

fireplaces.

22. What does this passage mainly discuss ?

(A) The processing of wool

(B) Linsey-woolsey bedcovers

(C) Sleeping habits of colonial Americans

(A) Quilts made in England

23. The word "prominent" in line 3 is closest in meaning to

(A) isolated

(B) concerned

(C) generous

(A) distinguished

24. The author mentions the Revolutionary War as a time period when

(A) quilts were supplied to the army

(B) more immigrants arrived from England

(C) quilts imported from England became harder to find

(A) people's attitude toward England changed

25. The phrase "applied to" in line 8 is closest in meaning to

(A) sewn onto

(B) compared to

(C) used for

(D) written down on

26. The term "linsey-woolsey" originally meant fabric used primarily in

(A) quilts

(B) sheets

(C) clothing

(D) pillows

27. The word "coarser" in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(A) older

(B) less heavy

(C) more attractive

(D) rougher

28. The quilts described in the second and third paragraphs

were made primarily of

(A) wool

(B) linen

(C) cotton

(D) a mixture of fabrics

29. It can be inferred from the third paragraph that the sleeping habits of most

Americans have changed since the 1700's in all of the following ways EXCEPT

(A) the position in which people sleep

(B) the numbers of bolsters or pillows people sleep on

(C) the length of time people sleep

(D) the number of people who sleep in one bed

30. The word "afforded" in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) provided

(B) spent

(C) avoided

(D) absorbed

31. Which of the following was most likely to be found in a bedroom in

the colder areas of the American colonies ?

(A) A linsey-woolsey

(B) A vent from a central heating system

(C) A fireplace

(D) A wood stove

Questions 32-41

Growing tightly packed together and collectively weaving a dense canopy of

branches, a stand of red alder trees can totally dominate a site to the exclusion of

almost everything else. Certain species such as salmonberry and sword ferns have

Line	adapted to the limited sunlight dappling through the canopy, but few evergreen trees

(5)	will survive there; still fewer can compete with the early prodigious growth of alders.

A Douglas fir tree reaches its maximum rate of growth ten years later than an alder,

and if two of them begin life at the same time, the alder quickly outgrows and

dominates the Douglas fir. After an alder canopy has closed, the Douglas fir suffers a

marked decrease in growth, often dying within several years. Even more shade-tolerant

(10)	species of trees such as hemlock may remain badly suppressed beneath aggressive

young alders.

Companies engaged in intensive timber cropping naturally take a dim view of alders

suppressing more valuable evergreen trees. But times are changing; a new generation

of foresters seems better prepared to include in their management plans consideration

(15)	of the vital ecological role alders play.

Among the alder's valuable ecological contributions is its capacity to fix nitrogen in

nitrogen-deficient soils. Alder roots contain clusters of nitrogen-fixing nodules like

those found on legumes such as beans. In addition, newly developing soils exposed by

recent glacier retreat and planted with alders show that these trees are applying the

(20)	equivalent of ten bags of high-nitrogen fertilizer to each hectare per year. Other

chemical changes to soil in which they are growing include a lowering of the base

content and rise in soil acidity, as well as a substantial addition of carbon and calcium

to the soil.

Another important role many alders play in the wild, particularly in mountainous

(25)	areas, is to check the rush of water during spring melt. In Japan and elsewhere, the

trees are planted to stabilize soil on steep mountain slopes. Similarly, alders have been

planted to stabilize and rehabilitate waste material left over from old mines, flood

deposits, and landslide areas in both Europe and Asia.

32. What does this passage mainly discuss ?

(A) Differences between alder trees and Douglas fir trees

(B) Alder trees as a source of timber

(C) Management plans for using alder trees to improve soil

(D) The relation of alder trees to their forest environments

33. The word "dense" in line 1 is closest in meaning to

(A) dark

(B) tall

(C) thick

(D) broad

34. Alder trees can suppress the growth of nearby trees by depriving them of

(A) nitrogen

(B) sunlight

(C) soil nutrients

(D) water

35. The passage suggests that Douglas fir trees are

(A) a type of alder

(B) a type of evergreen

(C) similar to sword fern

(D) fast-growing trees

36. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that hemlock trees

(A) are similar in size to alder trees

(B) interfere with the growth of Douglas fir trees

(C) reduce the number of alder trees in the forest

(D) need less sunlight than do Douglas fir trees

37. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that previous generations of foresters

(A) did not study the effects of alders on forests

(B) did not want alders in forests

(C) harvested alders for lumber

(D) used alders to control the growth of evergreens

38. The word "they" in line 21 refers to

(A) newly developing soils

(B) alders

(C) bags

(D) chemical changes

39. According to the passage, alders added all of the following to soil EXCEPT

(A) nitrogen

(B) calcium

(C) carbon

(D) oxygen

40. It can be inferred from the passage that alders are used in mountainous areas to

(A) prevent water from carrying away soil

(B) hold the snow

(C) protect mines

(D) provide material for housing

41. What is the author's main purpose in the passage ?

(A) To argue that alder trees are useful in forest management

(B) To explain the life cycle of alder trees

(C) To criticize the way alders take over and eliminate forests

(D) To illustrate how alder trees control soil erosion

Questions 42-50

In taking up a new life across the Atlantic, the early European settlers of the United

States did not abandon the diversions with which their ancestors had traditionally

relieved the tedium of life. Neither the harshness of existence on the new continent nor

Line	the scattered population nor the disapproval of the clergy discouraged the majority

(5)	from the pursuit of pleasure.

City and country dwellers, of course, conducted this pursuit in different ways. Farm

dwellers in their isolation not only found it harder to locate companions in play but

also, thanks to the unending demands and pressures of their work, felt it necessary to

combine fun with purpose. No other set of colonists took so seriously one expression of

(10)	the period, "Leasure is time for doing something useful." In the countryside farmers

therefore relieved the burden of the daily routine with such double-purpose relaxations

as hunting, fishing, and trapping. When a neighbor needed help, families rallied from

miles around to assist in building a house or barn, husking corn, shearing sheep, or

chopping wood. Food, drink, and celebration after the group work provided relaxation

(15)	and soothed weary muscles.

The most eagerly anticipated social events were the rural fairs. Hundreds of men,

women, and children attended from far and near. The men bought or traded farm

animals and acquired needed merchandise while the women displayed food prepared in

their kitchens, and everyone, including the youngsters, watched or participated in a

(20)	variety of competitive sports, with prizes awarded to the winners. These events

typically included horse races, wrestling matches, and foot races, as well as some

nonathletic events such as whistling competitions. No other occasions did so much to

relieve the isolation of farm existence.

With the open countryside everywhere at hand, city dwellers naturally shard in

(25)	some of the rural diversions. Favored recreations included fishing, hunting, skating,

and swimming. But city dwellers also developed other pleasures, which only compact

communities made possible.

42. What is the passage mainly about ?

(A) Methods of farming used by early settlers of the United States

(B) Hardships faced by the early settlers of the United States

(C) Methods of buying, selling, and trading used by early settlers of

the United States

(D) Ways in which early settlers of the United States relaxed

43. What can be inferred about the diversions of the early settlers of

the United States ?

(A) They followed a pattern begun in Europe.

(B) They were enjoyed more frequently than in Europe.

(C) The clergy organized them.

(D) Only the wealthy participated in them.

44. Which of the following can be said about the county dwellers' attitude

toward "the pursuit of pleasure" ?

(A) They felt that it should help keep their minds on their work.

(B) They felt that it was not necessary.

(C) They felt that it should be productive.

(D) They felt that it should not involve eating and drinking.

45. The phrase □thanks to" in line 8 is closest in meaning to

(A) grateful for

(B) help with

(C) because of

(D) machines for

46. The word "their" in line 8 refers to

(A) ways

(B) farm dwellers

(C) demands

(D) pressures

47. What is meant by the phrase "double-purpose" in line 11 ?

(A) Very frequent

(B) Useful and enjoyable

(C) Extremely necessary

(D) Positive and negative

48. The phrase "eagerly anticipated" in line 16 in closest in meaning to

(A) well organized

(B) old-fashioned

(C) strongly opposed

(D) looked forward to

49. Which of the following can be said about the rural diversions mentioned

in the last paragraph in which city dwellers also participated ?

(A) They were useful to the rural community.

(B) They involved the purchase of items useful in the home.

(C) They were activities that could be done equally easily in the towns.

(D) They were all outdoor activities.

50. What will the author probably discuss in the paragraph following this passage ?

(A) The rural diversions enjoyed by both urban and rural people

(B) Leisure activities of city dwellers

(C) Building methods of the early settlers in rural areas

(D) Changes in the lifestyles of settlers as they moved to the cities

Test 10

Questions 1-10

In the 1500's when the Spanish moved into what later was to become the

southwestern United States, they encountered the ancestors of the modern-day Pueblo,

Hopi, and Zuni peoples. These ancestors, known variously as the Basket Makers, the

Line	Anasazi, or the Ancient Ones, had lived in the area for at least 2,000 years. They were

(5)	an advanced agricultural people who used irrigation to help grow their crops.

The Anasazi lived in houses constructed of adobe and wood. Anasazi houses were	originally built in pits and were entered from the roof. But around the year 700 A.D.,

the Anasazi began to build their homes above ground and join them together into

rambling multistoried complexes, which the Spanish called pueblos or villages.

(10)	Separate subterranean rooms in these pueblos □ known as kivas or chapels □ were set

aside for religious ceremonials. Each kiva had a fire pit and a hole that was believed to

lead to the underworld. The largest pueblos had five stories and more than 800 rooms.

The Anasazi family was matrilinear, that is, descent was traced through the female.

The sacred objects of the family were under the control of the oldest female, but the

(15)	actual ceremonies were conducted by her brother or son. Women owned the rooms in

the pueblo and the crops, once they were harvested. While still growing, crops

belonged to the men who, in contrast to most other Native American groups, planted	them. The women made baskets and pottery; the men wove textiles and crafted

turquoise jewelry.

(20)	Each village had two chiefs. The village chief dealt with land disputes and religious

affairs. The war chief led the men in fighting during occasional conflicts that broke out

with neighboring villages and directed the men in community building projects. The

cohesive political and social organization of the Anasazi made it almost impossible for

other groups to conquer them.

1.  What does the passage mainly discuss?

(a)  The culture of the Anasazi people

(b)  European settlement in what became the southeastern United States

(c)  The construction of Anasazi houses

(d)  Political structures of Native American peoples

2.  The Anasazi people were considered "agriculturally advanced" because

of the way they ---

(a) stored their crops

(b) fertilized their fields

(c) watered their crops

(d) planted their fields

3.  The word "pits" in line 7 is closest in meaning to

(a)  stages              (b)  scars

(c)  seeds              (d)  holes

4. The word "stories" in line 12 is closest in meaning to

(a)  articles             (b)  tales

(c)  levels               (d)  rumors

5.  Who would have been most likely to control the sacred objects

of an Anasazi family?

(a)  A twenty-year-old man

(b)  A twenty-year-old woman

(c)  A forty-year-old man

(d)  A forty-year-old woman

6. The word "they" in line 16 refers to

(a) women                     (b)  crops

(c) rooms                      (d)  pueblos

7. The word "disputes" in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(a)  discussions

(b)  arguments

(c)  developments

(d)  purchases

8. Which of the following activities was NOT done by Anasazi men?

(a)  Making baskets

(b)  Planting crops

(c)  building homes

(d)  Crafting jewelry

9.  According to the passage, what made it almost impossible for other groups

to conquer the Anasazi?

(a)  The political and social organization of th Anasazi

(b)  The military tactics employed by the Anasazi

(c)  The Anasazi's agricultural technology

(d)  The natural barriers surrounding Anasazi villages

10. The passage supports which of the following generalizations?

(a)  The presence of the Spanish threatened Anasazi society.

(b)  The Anasazi benefited from trading relations with the Spanish.

(c)  Anasazi society exhibited a well-defined division of labor.

(d)  Conflicts between neighboring Anasazi villages were easily resolved.

Questions 11-20

Barbed wire, first patented in the United States in 1867, played an important part in

the development of American farming, as it enabled the settlers to make effective

fencing to enclose their land and keep cattle away from their crops. This had a

Line	considerable effect on cattle ranching, since the herds no longer had unrestricted use of

(5)	the plains for grazing, and the fencing led to conflict between the farmers and the cattle	ranchers.

Before barbed wire came into general use, fencing was often made from serrated

wire, which was unsatisfactory because it broke easily when under strain, and could

snap in cold weather due to contraction. The first practical machine for producing

(10)	barbed wire was invented in 1874 by an Illinois farmer, and between then and the end

of the century about 400 types of barbed wire were devised, of which only about a

dozen were ever put to practical use.

Modern barbed wire is made from mild steel, high-tensile steel, or aluminum. Mild

steel and aluminum barbed wire have two strands twisted together to form a cable

(15)	which is stronger than single-strand wire and less affected by temperature changes.	Single-strand wire, round or oval, is made from high-tensile steel with the barbs

crimped or welded on. The steel wires used are galvanized □ coated with zinc to make

them rustproof. The two wires that make up the line wire or cable are fed separately	into a machine at one end. They leave it at the other end twisted together and barbed.

(20)	The wire to make the barbs is fed into the machine from the sides and cut to length by	knives that cut diagonally through the wire to produce a sharp point. This process	continues automatically, and the finished barbed wire is wound onto reels, usually

made of wire, in lengths of 400 meters or in weights of up to 50 kilograms.

A variation of barbed wire is also used for military purposes. It is formed into long

coils or entanglements called concertina wire.

11.  What is the main topic of the passage?

(a)  Cattle ranching in the United States   (b)  A type of fencing

(c)  Industrial uses of wire                (d)  A controversy over land use

12.  The word "unrestricted" in line 4 is closest in meaning to

(a)  unsatisfactory   (b)  difficult

(c)  considerable    (d)  unlimited

13.  The word "snap" in line 9 could best be replaced by which of the following?

(a)  freeze          (b)  click

(c)  loosen         (d)  break

14.  What is the benefit of using two-stranded barbed wire?

(a)  Improved rust-resistance          (b)  Increased strength

(c)  More rapid attachment of barbs   (d)  Easier installation

15.  According to the author, the steel wires used to make barbed wire are

specially processed to

(a)  protect them against rust              (b)  make them more flexible

(c)  prevent contraction in cold weather    (d)  strengthen them

16.  The word "fed" in line 20 is closest in meaning to

(a)  put          (b)  eaten

(c)  bitten       (d)  nourished

17.  The knives referred to in line 21 are used to

(a)  separate double-stranded wire

(b)  prevent the reel from advancing too rapidly

(c)  twist the wire

(d)  cut the wire that becomes barbs

18.  What is the author's purpose in the third paragraph?

(a)  To explain the importance of the wire

(b)  To outline the difficulty of making the wire

(c)  To describe how the wire is made

(d)  To suggest several different uses of the wire

19.  According to the passage, concertina wire is used for

(a)  livestock management

(b)  international communications

(c)  prison enclosures

(d)  military purposes

20.  Which of the following most closely resembles the fencing described in the passage?

Questions 21-29

Under certain circumstances, the human body must cope with gases at greater-than-

normal atmospheric pressure. For example, gas pressures increase rapidly during a dive

made with scuba gear because the breathing equipment allows divers to stay

Line	underwater longer and dive deeper. The pressure exerted on the human body increases

(5)	by 1 atmosphere for every 10 meters of depth in seawater, so that at 30 meters in

seawater a diver is exposed to a pressure of about 4 atmospheres. The pressure of the

gases being breathed must equal the external pressure applied to the body ; otherwise

breathing is very difficult. Therefore all of the gases in the air breathed by a scuba

diver at 40 meters are present at five times their usual pressure. Nitrogen, which

(10)	composes 80 percent of the air we breathe, usually causes a balmy feeling of

well-being at this pressure. At a depth of 5 atmospheres, nitrogen causes symptoms

resembling alcohol intoxication, known as nitrogen narcosis. Nitrogen narcosis

apparently results from a direct effect on the brain of the large amounts of nitrogen

dissolved in the blood. Deep dives are less dangerous if helium is substituted for

(15)	nitrogen, because under these pressures helium does not exert a similar narcotic effect.

As a scuba diver descends, the pressure of nitrogen in the lungs increases. Nitrogen

then diffuses from the lungs to the blood, and from the blood to body tissues. The

reverse occurs when the diver surfaces ; the nitrogen pressure in the lungs falls and the

nitrogen diffuses from the tissues into the blood, and from the blood into the lungs. If

(20)	the return to the surface is too rapid, nitrogen in the tissues and blood cannot diffuse

out rapidly enough and nitrogen bubbles are formed. They can cause severe pains,

particularly around the joints.

Another complication may result if the breath is held during ascent. During ascent

from a depth of 10 meters, the volume of air in the lungs will double because the air

(25)	pressure at the surface is only half of what it was at 10 meters. This change in volume

may cause the lungs to distend and even rupture. This condition is called air embolism.

To avoid this event, a diver must ascend slowly, never at a rate exceeding the rise of

the exhaled air bubbles, and must exhale during ascent.

21.  What does the passage mainly discuss?

(a)  The equipment divers use

(b)  The effects of pressure on gases in the human body

(c)  How to prepare for a deep dive

(d)  The symptoms of nitrogen bubbles in the bloodstream

22. The words "exposed to" in line 6 are closest in meaning to

(a)  leaving behind       (b)  prepared for

(c)  propelled by         (d)  subjected to

23.  The word "exert" in line 15 is closest in meaning to

(a)  cause                (b)  permit

(c)  need                 (d)  change

24. The word "diffuses" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(a)  yields         (b)  starts

(c)  surfaces       (d)  travels

25.  What happens to nitrogen in body tissues if a diver ascends too quickly?

(a)  it forms bubbles.

(b)  It goes directly to the brain

(c)  It is reabsorbed by the lungs

(d)  It has a narcotic effect

26.  The word "they" in line 21 refers to

(a)  joints             (b)  pains

(c)  bubbles           (d)  tissues

27. The word "rupture" in line 26 is closest   in meaning to

(a)  hurt               (b) shrink

(c)  burst              (d)  stop

28. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following

presents the greatest danger to a diver?

(a) pressurized helium

(b) Nitrogen diffusion

(c) Nitrogen bubbles

(d) An air embolism

29. What should a diver do when ascending?

(a)  Rise slowly

(b)  Breathe faster

(c)  Relax completely

(d)  Breathe helium

Questions 30-39

Each advance in microscopic technique has provided scientists with new perspectives

on the function of living organisms and the nature of matter itself. The invention of the	visible-light microscope late in the sixteenth century introduced a previously unknown

Line	realm of single-celled plants and animals. In the twentieth century, electron microscopes

(5)	have provided direct views of viruses and minuscule surface structures. Now another

type of microscope, one that utilizes x-rays rather than light or electrons, offers a

different way of examining tiny details; it should extend human perception still farther

into the natural world.

The dream of building an x-ray microscope dates to 1895 ; its development, however,

(10)	was virtually halted in the 1940's because the development of the electron microscope

was progressing rapidly. During the 1940's, electron microscopes routinely achieved

resolution better than that possible with a visible-light microscope, while the

performance of x-ray microscopes resisted improvement. In recent years, however,

interest in x-ray microscopes has revived, largely because of advances such as the

(15)	development of new sources of x-ray illumination. As a result, the brightness available

today is millions of times that of x-ray tubes, which, for most of the century, were the

only available sources of soft x-rays.

The new x-ray microscopes considerably improve on the resolution provided by optical	microscopes. They can also be used to map the distribution of certain chemical elements.

(20)	Some can form pictures in extremely short times ; others hold the promise of special

capabilities such as three-dimensional imaging. Unlike conventional electron microscopy,

x-ray microscopy enables specimens to be kept in air and in water, which means that

biological samples can be studied under conditions similar to their natural state. The

illumination used, so-called soft x-rays in the wavelength range of twenty to forty

(25)	angstroms(an angstrom is one ten-billionth of a meter), is also sufficiently penetrating

to image intact biological cells in many cases. Because of the wavelength of the x-rays

used, soft x-ray microscopes will never match the highest resolution possible with

electron microscopes. Rather, their special properties will make possible investigations

that will complement those performed with light- and electron-based instruments.

30.  What does the passage mainly discuss?

(a)  The detail seen through a microscope

(b)  Sources of illumination for microscopes

(c)  A new kind of microscope

(d)  Outdated microscopic techniques

31.  According to the passage, the invention of the visible-light microscope

allowed scientists to

(a)  see viruses directly

(b)  develop the electron microscope late on

(c)  understand more about the distribution of the chemical elements

(d)  discover single-celled plants and animals they had never seen before

32.  The word "minuscule" in line 5 s closest in meaning to

(a)  circular       (b)  dangerous

(c)  complex      (d)  tiny

33. The word "it" in line 7 refers to

(a)  a type of microscope

(b)  human perception

(c)  the natural world

(d)  light

34.  Why does the author mention the visible-light microscope in the first paragraph?

(a)  To begin a discussion of sixteenth-century discoveries

(b)  To put the x-ray microscope in a historical perspective

(c)  To show how limited its uses are

(d)  To explain how it functioned

35.  Why did it take so long to develop the x-ray microscope?

(a)  Funds for research were insufficient.

(b)  The source of illumination was not bright enough until recently.

(c)  Materials used to manufacture x-ray tubes were difficult to obtain

(d)  X-ray microscopes were too complicated to operate.

36. The word "enables" in line 22 is closest in meaning to

(a)  constitutes      (b)  specifies

(c)  expands        (d)  allows

37.  The word "Rather" on line 28 is closest in meaning to

(a)  Significantly       (b)  Preferably

(c)  Somewhat        (d)  Instead

38.  The word "those" in line 29 refers to

(a)  properties         (b)  investigations

(c)  microscopes       (d)  x-rays

39.  Based on the information in the passage, what can be inferred

about x-ray microscopes in the future?

(a)  They will probably replace electron microscopes altogether.

(b)  They will eventually be much cheaper to produce than they are now.

(c)  They will provide information not available from other kinds of

microscopes.

(d)  They will eventually change the illumination rage that they now use.

Questions 40-50

Perhaps the most striking quality of satiric literature is its freshness, its originality of	perspective. Satire rarely offers original ideas. Instead, it presents the familiar in a new

form. Satirists do not offer the world new philosophies. What they do is look at

Line	familiar conditions from a perspective that makes these conditions seem foolish,

(5)	harmful, or affected. Satire jars us out of complacence into a pleasantly shocked

realization that many of the values we unquestioningly accept are false. Don Quixote

makes chivalry seem absurd ; Brave New World ridicules the pretensions of science ; A

Modest Proposal dramatizes starvation by advocating cannibalism. None of these ideas

is original. Chivalry was suspect before Cervantes, humanists objected to the claims of

(10)	pure science before Aldous Huxley, and people were aware of famine before Swift. It

was not the originality of the idea that made these satires popular. It was the manner of	expression, the satiric method, that made them interesting and entertaining. Satires are

read because they are aesthetically satisfying works of art, not because they are morally	wholesome or ethically instructive. They are stimulating and refreshing because with

(15)	commonsense briskness they brush away illusions and secondhand opinions. With

spontaneous irreverence, satire rearranges perspectives, scrambles familiar objects into

incongruous juxtaposition, and speaks in a personal idiom instead of abstract platitude.

Satire exists because there is need for it. It has lived because readers appreciate a

refreshing stimulus, an irreverent reminder that they live in a world of platitudinous

(20)	thinking, cheap moralizing, and foolish philosophy. Satire serves to prod people into an

awareness of truth, though rarely to any action on behalf of truth. Satire tends to

remind people that much of what they see, hear, and read in popular media is

sanctimonious, sentimental, and only partially true. Life resembles in only a slight

degree the popular image of it. Soldiers rarely hold the ideals that movies attribute to

(25)	them, nor do ordinary citizens devote their lives to unselfish service of humanity.

Intelligent people know these things but tend to forget them when they do not hear

them expressed.

40.  What does the passage mainly discuss?

(a)  Difficulties of writing satiric literature

(b)  Popular topics of satire

(c)  New philosophies emerging from satiric literature

(d)  Reasons for the popularity of satire

41.  The word "realization" in line 6 is closest in meaning to

(a)  certainty   (b)  awareness

(c)  surprise    (d)  confusion

42.  Why does the author mention Don Quixote, Brave New World, and A Modest Proposal

in lines 6-8?

(a) They are famous examples of satiric literature.

(b) They present commonsense solutions to problems.

(c) They are appropriate for readers of all ages.

(d) They are books with similar stories.

43.  The word "aesthetically" in line 13 is closest in meaning to

(a)  artistically          (b)  exceptionally

(c)  realistically         (d)  dependably

44.  Which of the following can be found in satiric literature?

(a)  Newly emerging philosophies

(b)  Odd combinations of objects and ideas

(c)  Abstract discussion of morals and ethics

(d)  Wholesome characters who are unselfish

45.  According to the passage, there is a need for satire because people need to b

(a)  informed about new scientific developments

(b)  exposed to original philosophies when they are formulated

(c)  reminded that popular ideas are often inaccurate

(d)  told how they can be of service to their communities

46.  The word "refreshing" in line 19 is closest in meaning to

(a)  popular      (b)  ridiculous

(c)  meaningful   (d)  unusual

47.  The word "they" in line 22 refers to

(a)  people       (b)  media

(c)  ideals        (d)  movies

48.  The word "devote" in line 25 is closest in meaning to

(a)  distinguish     (b)  feel affection

(c)  prefer          (d)  dedicate

49.  As a result of reading satiric literature, readers will be most likely to

(a) teach themselves to write fiction

(b) accept conventional points of view

(c) become better informed about current affairs

(d) reexamine their opinions and values

50.  The various purposes of satire include all of the following EXCEPT

(a)  introducing readers to unfamiliar situations

(b)  brushing away illusions

(c)  reminding readers of the truth

(d)  exposing false values

본문해석

Test 1

Question 1-8

Robert Laurent 그리고 William Zorach 와 함께 direct carving 은 미국에서 현대조각의 역사에	들어가게 되었다. direct carving 은 □ 그 분야에서는 조각가 자신이 망치와 정을 가지고 돌이나 나무에	새기는 것인데 □ 단순한 하나의 기법이상의 어떤 것으로 인정되어야한다. 그 안에는 미적 원리 같은 것이	역시 내재되어있다. 매체가 미와 표현의 어떤 특질들을 가지는데, 이 특질들로써 조각가는 자신의 미적	감각을 조화롭게 만드는 것이다. 예를 들면, 때때로 돌이나 나무 조각의 모양이나 결이 궁극적이	모양뿐만 아니라 작품의 주제를 제시하고, 또는 지시하기까지도 한다.

direct carving 의 기법은 19 세기 전통으로부터의 탈피인데, 그 19 세기 전통에서는 진흙모형을	만드는 것이 창작적인 미술로 간주되었고 그 다음에 그 작품은 작업실의 조수들에게 넘겨져서 석고나	청동에 주조되든가 대리석에 새겨졌다. 신고전주의 조각가들은 그들 자신의 손에 거의 망치나 정을 들지	않았으며, 그들이 고용한 조수들이 최종대리석작품을 조각하는데 있어서 자신들보다 훨씬 낫다는 것을	기꺼이 인정했다.

세기가 바뀔 때(20세기초)의 공예운동과 목재로 만든 아프리카의 형상이나 마스크 같은 비전통적인	영감의 근원의 발견으로 인하여, 손수 행하는 개인적인 미술의 실행과 매체와의 교감에 대한 촉구가	일어났다. 일찍이 1880년대와 1890년대에조차도 이미 개혁주의 유럽 미술가들은 direct carving을	시도하고 있었다. 1920년대까지 미국인들은 □ 그 중에서 Laurent 와 Zorach 가 가장 주목할만한데 □	그것을 그들의 주요작업수단으로 채택했다.

프랑스에서 태어난 Robert Laurent(1890-1970)는 미국에서 교육을 받았던 하나의 신동이었다.	1905년에 그는 파리의 한 미술상에 도제로 보내졌고, 그 뒤에 따르는 몇 년 후에 입체파의 탄생을	목격했고, 원시미술을 발견했고, 어떤 표구상으로부터 목재조각의 기법을 배웠다.

1910년 New Work City로 돌아와서 Laurent 는 The Priestess 와 같은 조각작품들을 시작했는데 그	작품은 아프리카 미술과 (미국)콜럼부스이전의 미술과 남태평양 미술 등에 대한 그의 매혹을 보여준다.	호두나무판자를 택해서, 그 조각가는 그 표현력 있고 스타일 있는 디자인을 조각했다. 그것은 미국조각에	있어서 direct carving의 가장 초창기 예들 중의 하나이다. 그 판자의 형태가 엄격하게 정면만을 보여주는	모습과 낮은 부조를 지시했다. 그것의 불규칙한 모양조차도, 조각가에게 완벽하게 직사각형이나 정사각형	안에서만 작업하도록 요구했던 오래 지속되어온 전통으로부터의 탈피로서, Laurent 의 마음을 끌었음에	틀림없다.

Question 9-19

무리를 지어 식사하는(먹이를 먹는) 새들은 흔히 함께 숙소로 돌아간다. (공동거주를 한다)	공동거주를 하는 이유들이 항상 뚜렷한 것은 아니지만, 가능한 혜택이 있을 것이다. 특히 겨울에는	새들이 밤에 따뜻함을 유지하고 귀중한 음식 저장물을 보존하는 것이 중요하다. 이것을 하는 하나의	방법은 피난처가 될 수 있는 숙소 sheltered roost 를 구하는 것이다. 독립적으로 기거하는 새들은 밀집한	숲에 거주하든가 또는 구멍으로 들어간다 □ horned larks 라는 종달새는 땅에 구멍을 파고, ptarmigan	이란 새는 눈제방에 굴을 파고 들어간다 □ 그런데, 거주의 효과는, wrens, swifts, brown creepers,	bluebirds, and anis 등의 새들이 하는 것과 같이, 여러 마리의 새가 거주지에 함께 붙어있을 때	증가된다. 신체적인 접촉은 찬 공기에 노출되는 표면적을 감소시킨다. 그래서 새들이 서로를 따뜻하게	유지시켜준다. kinglets 이라는 새가 두 마리가 함께 붙어있으면 열 손실을 1/4 정도 감소시키는 것으로,	그리고 3마리가 함께 있으면 그들의 열의 1/3을 절약하는 것으로 밝혀졌다.

공동거주의 두 번째로 가능한 혜택은 그들이 정보 센터로 역할을 한다는 것이다. 낮 동안에는	여러무리의 새들이 넓은 지역에 걸쳐서 흩어져 나갈 것이다. 그들이 저녁에 돌아왔을 때 어떤 새들은 잘	먹었을 것이고 어떤 다른 새들은 먹을 것을 별로 구하지 못했을 수도 있다. 어떤 조사자(과학자)들이	관찰했는데, 그 새들이 다음날 아침에 다시 나갈 때 전 날 잘 못 먹었던 새들이 전날 잘먹었던 새들을	따라가는 것으로 보였다. common kestrel 과 lesser kestrel 이라는 두 종류의 새가 있는데 그들의	행동이 다른 거주 습관을 가진 비슷한 새들의 서로 다른 식사습관을 예증한다. common kestrel 은 작고	친숙한 사냥지역에서 척추동물을 사냥하고 반면에 아주 비슷하게 생긴 lesser kestrel 은 넓은 지역에	걸쳐서 곤충들을 먹고산다. common kestrel 은 혼자서 사냥하고 잠자는데 lesser kestrel 은 무리를 지어	잠자고 사냥한다. 그래서 아마도 한 새가 다른 새들로부터  어디서 곤충의 군집을 발견할 수 있는지 배울	수 있을 것이다.

마지막으로, 항상 경각시키기 위해서(위험을 알리기 위해서) 새들 중의 몇 마리는 깨어있으므로 많은	숫자로 공동 거주하는 것은 안전을 보장할 수 있다. 그러나 이러한 증대된 방어의 효과가, 집단거주가	오히려 적을 유인하고 그들이 땅에 있을 때는 특히 더 취약하다는 사실에 의해서, 부분적으로 상쇄될	수도 있다. 나무에 사는 새들조차도 맹금류의 공격을 받을 수 있다. 적들은 집단거주지의 가장자리에	앉아있는 작은 새들을 잡는 것이 더 쉽다는 것을 알기 때문에 가장자리에 있는 새들은 가장 큰 위험을	안게된다.

Question 20-30

19세기 중엽 이전에 미국사람들은 음식을 단지 제철에만 먹었다. 건조, 훈제, 염장 등은 고기를	짧은 기간동안 저장할 수 있다, 그러나 신선하나 고기를 구하는 것은, 신선한 우유를 구하는 것과	마찬가지로, 매우 한정되어있었다 ; 그리고 부패를 막는 방법이 없었다. 그러나 1810년에 Nicolas Appert	라는 한 프랑스의 발명가가 통조림의 요리하고 밀봉하는 공정을 개발해냈다. 그리고 1850년대에는 Gail	Borden 이라는 미국인이 우유를 농축해서 보존하는 공정을 개발했다. 통조림된 상품과 농축된 우유는	1860년대 동안에 매우 흔해졌다. 그러나 깡통이 수공으로 만들어졌으므로 공급은 항상 저조했다. 그러나	1880년까지 발명가들은  양철로부터 깡통을 대량생산해내는 판금과 용접기계를 만들어냈다. 갑자기 모든	종류의 음식이 보존되어서 연중 언제든지 구입할 수 있게되었다.

다른 추세와 발명들도 역시 미국인들이 그들의 일상 식사를 다양화시키는데 도움이 되었다.	증가하는 도시인구가, 과일 및 야채 농가들로 하여금 더 많은 농산물을 재배하도록 자극하는, 수요를	창출하게 되었다. 냉장기차가 재배자들과 고기 포장업자들로 하여금 장거리까지 부패성 상품(고기, 야채	등)을 수송할 수 있게 해주고 그것들을 더 장기간 보존할 수 있게 해주었다. 그래서 1890년대까지	북부도시의 거주자들이 남부와 서부의 딸기, 포도, 토마토 등을 년중 6개월까지 즐길 수 있게 되었다.	전에는 단지 기껏해야 한달 동안만 구할 수 있었는데. 게다가 아이스박스의 사용의 증가가 가족들로	하여금 부패성 식품을 저장할 수 있게 해주었다. 1870년대에 이미 상업적으로 얼음을 생산하는 쉬운	방법이 발명되었고 1900년대까지 미국에는 2,000개 이상의 상업적인 얼음공장이 생겨났는데 그 중의	대부분은 가정에 배달을 해주었다. 아이스박스는 모든 가정의 필수품이 되었고 나중에 1920 년대와 1930	연대에 기계화된 냉장고가 그것을 대치할 때까지 그 상태로 있었다. (모든 가정의 필수품이었다.)

그래서 이제는 거의 모든 사람이 더욱 다양화된 식사를 할 수 있었다. 어떤 사람들은 계속해서 주로	녹말과 탄수화물이 많은 음식을 먹었는데, 모든 사람이 고기를 먹을 수 있는 것은 아니었다. 그러나, 많은	가족들은 더 다양한 식사(음식)를 성취(획득)하기 위해서 전에는 구할 수 없었던 과일, 야채, 그리고	낙농제품들을 이용할 수 있었다.

Question 31-38

공중에서 자신의 몸을 바로잡아서 발로 딛으면서 떨어지는 고양이의 능력은 오랜 세월동안 경이의	근원이었다. 생물학자들은 오랫동안 그것은 자연선택에 의한 환경적응의 예로 간주했다. 그러나	물리학자들에게 그것은 기적에 가까웠다. 뉴턴의 운동법칙에서는 한 물체의 총 스핀(회전력)은, 외부적인	토크(비틀어주는, 회전시켜주는  힘)가 그것을 가속시키거나 감속시키지 않는 한, 변할 수가 없다는 것을	전제한다. 만약에 고양이가 공중에서 떨어질 때 처음에 스핀을 가지지 않고 외부적인 토크를 가지지	않는다면, 그것은 떨어지면서 몸을 비틀 수 없어야지 당연하다.

그것이 행해지는 속도에 있어서 떨어지는 고양이의 몸을 바로잡기는 마술사의 마술과 흡사하다.	공중에서 고양이가 회전하는 것은 인간의 눈이 보기에는 너무 빠르기 때문에, 그래서 그 과정이	불분명하다. 그 현상이 관찰되기 위해서는 사람의 눈이 가속화되는가 아니면 그 낙하가 느려지든가	해야한다. 한 세기 전에, 지금은 어느 약국에서든지 구입할 수 있는 그러한 장비를 이용하는	고속촬영이라는 수단을 통해서 전자가 실행되었다. 19세기에는 떨어지는 고양이를 영상으로 포착하는	것은 하나의 과학 실험으로 간주되었다.(지금은 과학자들만이 하는 것이 아니고 누구나 할 수 있는	간단한 일이지만).

그 실험은 1894년에 Paris Academy 에 제출된 한 논문에서 설명되었다. 하나는 옆에서 찍고	하나는 뒤에서 찍은 각각 20장으로 된 두 묶음의 연속된 사진이 자신을 바로잡는 흰 고양이를	보여주었다. 비록 화상이 흐릿하고 괴상해 보이지만, 그 사진들은 그 고양이가 처음에 아무런 스핀도	없이 거꾸로 떨어지는데 그래도 발로 땅을 딛으면서 착륙하는 것을 보여준다. 그 사진들의 세밀한 분석이	그 비밀을 알려준다 : 고양이가 그 몸의 앞부분을 시계방향으로 회전하면서 몸의 뒷부분과 꼬리는 반	시계 방향으로 회전한다. 그래서 뉴턴의 운동법칙에 정확히 일치하며, 총 스핀의 양은 0 을 유지한다.	반쯤 떨어졌을 때 고양이는 다리를 끌어당기고 다음에 그 비틀림 운동을 역으로 하고 다리를 뻗는다.	그리하여 원하는 최종결과를 얻는다. 그 설명은, 어떤 물체도 토크가 없이는 스핀을 얻을 수 없지만	유연성 있는 물체는 그것의 방향 또는 양상을 쉽게 변화시킬 수 있다는 것이다. 고양이는 이것을	본능적으로 알고 있다. 그러나 과학자들은 그들의 인식속도를 수 천 배 증가시킨 후에서야 비로소 어떻게	그런 일이 생기는지를 알게되었다.

Question 39-50

미국에서 한 도시의 변화하는 면모는 미국 인구조사국에서 사용하는 바뀌는 정의에 의해서 뚜렷이	나타난다. 1870년에  처음으로 인구조사는 미국의 도시와 시골을 공식적으로 구분했다. 도시 인구는	8,000명 이상 거주하는 마을에 사는 사람으로 정의되었다. 그러나 1900년 이후에 그것은 2,500명 이상을	가진 병합된 지역에 사는 사람들을 의미했다.

그 다음에, 1950년에 인구조사국은 도시의 정의를 획기적으로 변경하여, 도시 경계선의 새로운	애매모호함을 고려하게되었다. 2,500명 이상을 가진 병합된 지역에 사는 사람들에 추가해서, 그 규모의	병합되지 않은 지역에 사는 사람들과, 50,000 명 이상의 도시의 주위에 위치한 병합된 지역과 병합되지	않은 지역을 포함하여 밀도 높게 사람들이 거주하는 도시 외곽도 역시 포함했다. 거대인구의 핵심을	가지는 경제적으로 그리고 사회적으로 하나의 단위라고 간주될 수 있는 각각의 그런 단위는 Standard	Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA / 표준도시 통계지역)이라고 불리게되었다.

각 SMSA 는 최소한 (a) 50,000 이상의 주민을 가진 하나의 중심도시, 또는 (b) 공통 경계선을 가지면서	일반 경제적 그리고 사회적 목적을 위해서 하나의 지역사회를 구성하고 둘이 합쳐서 최소한 50,000 의	인구를 가지는 두 도시 (그런데 그 중 작은 도시가 최소 15,00 명의 인구를 가지는)를 포함했다. 그러한	지역은, 그 안에 중심도시가 위치하고 있는 카운티와, 특성상 대도시권이라고 보여지며 윗줄의 그 중심도시가	위치한 카운티와 경제적, 사회적으로 통합되어 있다고 보이는 인접한 카운티들을 포함했다. 1970년까지	미국인구의 2/3 가 이러한 도시화된 지역에 살고있으며, 그 수치 중에서 반은 중심도시의 외곽에 살고있었다.

인구조사국과 미국정부가 SMSA 라는 용어를 사용하는 한편, 사회과학자들은 과거에 단순히 “towns”	와 “cities” 였던 것들로부터 벗어나는 이해하기 힘들고 애매한 지역들을 묘사하기 위해서 새로운 용어들을	사용했는데, 즉 “metropolitan regions,” “polynucleated population groups,” “conurbations,” “metropolitan	clusters,” □megalopolises,” 등등이다.

Test 2

Question 1-8

미국에서 흔히 학교라는 것은 사람들이 교육을 얻기 위해서 가는 곳이라고 믿어진다. 그러나 오늘날	아이들은 학교를 가기 위해서 교육을 방해받는다고 흔히들 말한다. 이 말에 의해서 암시되는 "학교	공부"와 "교육"의 구분은 중요하다.

"교육"은 "학교 공부"보다 훨씬 더 광범위한 목적을 가지며 모든 것을 포괄한다. 교육은	경계선(한계)을 가지지 않는다. 그것은 샤워를 하면서, 일을 하면서, 부엌에 있을 때나 트랙터에 타고있을	때 등등 어디서나 발생한다. 그것은 학교에서 하는 공식적인 학습과 비공식적 학습의 전체 세계를	포함한다. 교육의 매개인(교육하는 사람)은 경외받는 조부모로부터 라디오에서 정치를 토론하는 사람들에	이르기까지, 어린아이로부터 저명한 과학자들까지 광범위하다. "학교 공부"는 어느 정도의 예측성을	가지는 반면에, 교육의 괘 자주 놀라움을 일으킨다. 낯선 사람과의 우연한 대화가 한 사람으로 하여금	다른 종교들에 관해서 얼마나 적게 알고 있는가를 깨닫게 이끌어준다. 인간은 유아시절부터 계속해서	교육에 가담한다. 그렇다면 교육은 매우 넓고, 포괄적인 용어이다. 그것은 평생의 과정이고, 학교교육이	시작하기 훨씬 전부터 시작하는 과정이며, 인간의 전 생애에서 빠질 수 없는 중요한 부분이 되어야하는	그런 하나의 과정이다.

반면에, "학교 공부"는 구체적이고 공식화된 과정인데, 그것의 일반적 양상은 하나의 환경에서 다른	환경으로 감에 따라 별로 큰 차이가 없다. 한 나라 전체에 걸쳐서 아이들은 거의 같은 시간에 학교에	도착하고, 지정된 자리에 앉고, 어른에 의해서 교육받고, 비슷한 교과서를 사용하고, 숙제하고, 시험보고	...등등을 한다. 학습되어야할 현실의 조각들은, 그것이 알파벳이건 정부 운영에 관한 이해이건, 교육되는	과목의 범위에 의해서 일반적으로 한정된다. 예를 들어, 고등학교 학생들은 그들이 학교공부에서,	지역사회에서 일어나는 정치 문제들의 진실이나 최신 영화제작자들이 무엇을 가지고 실험하고있는지 등을	알게될 가능성이 별로 없다는 것을 알고 있다. 학교 공부의 공식화된 과정을 둘러싸는 한정된 조건들이	있는 것이다.

Question 9-17

지구의 가장 바깥 부분을 형성하는 단단하고 굳은 지판들은 약 100 km 의 두께이다. 이 지판들은	지구의 지각과 상부맨틀을 포함한다.

지각의 바위들은 알루미늄이나 나트륨 같은 가벼운 원소를 가진 광물질들로 주로 구성되며, 한편	맨틀은 철이나 마그네슘 같이 무거운 원소들을 포함한다. 지표의 지판들을 형성하고있는 지각과	상부맨틀은 암석권(lithosphere)라고 불린다. 이 굳은 층은 나무 뗏목이 연못에 떠있는 것과 같은 방식으로	하부맨틀의 밀도 높은 물질 위에 떠 있는 것이다. 지판들은 취약권(asthenosphere)이라고 불리는 약하고	유연성 있는 하부맨틀의 층에 의해서 지지되고 있다. 역시 연못에 떠있는 뗏목처럼, 암석권 지판들은 그들의	밑에 있는 더욱 액체성을 띈 층에서의 (조류같은) 흐름을 따라서 이리저리 이동된다.

지판구조지질학(plate tectonics)을 이해함으로써, 지질학자들은 지구표면에 관한 새로운 역사를	밝혀냈다. 약 2억년전에 지표상의 지판들은 판지아라고 불리는 초대륙을 형성했었다. 이 초대륙이 지판이동	때문에 쪼개지기 시작했을 때, 판지아는 우선 두 개의 거대한 대륙 덩어리로 갈라졌는데, 갈라진 틈 사이로	물이 가득 차면서 그 두 대륙사이에 하나의 새로운 바다가 형성되었다. 그 남쪽의 것(대륙) □ 지금의 남미,	아프리카, 호주, 남극대륙들을 포함한 것 □ 은 □곤드와나랜드□라고 불렸고, 그 북쪽의 것(대륙) □ 북미, 유럽,	아시아를 포함하는 □ 은 □로라시아□라고 불렸다. 북미는 1억 8천만년 전에 유럽으로부터 갈라져서 북대서양을	만들었다.

암석권 지판들 중의 일부는 바다의 바닥을 지탱하며(밑에서 떠받치며), 다른 지판들은 땅덩어리또는	그 두가지(바다의 바닥과 땅덩어리)가 결합된 것을 지탱한다. 암석권 지판들의 움직임이 지진, 화산,	그리고 지구의 가장 큰 산맥에 대해서 책임이 있다. 다른 지판들 사이의 상호작용에 관한 오늘날의	이해가, 왜 이런 현상들이 그들이 발생하는 바로 그곳에서 발생하는지를 설명한다. 예를 들면, 태평양의	가장자리는, 매우 많은 화산분출과 지진들이 거기에서 발생하기 때문에 “Ring of Fire”라고 불렸다.	1960년대 이전에 지질학자들은 왜 활동적인 화산과 강한 지진들이 그 지역에 집중되어있는지 설명할 수	없었다. 지판구조지질학의 이론이 그들에게 대답을 주었다.

Question18-27

미국에서 1800년대 초에, 연방정부보다 각각의 주정부가 경제에 더 많은 영향을 끼쳤다. 각 주들은	제조업, 금융업, 광업, 그리고 운수업체들의 허가를 내주고, 운하, 고속도로, 철도와 같은 여러 가지	국내시설 발전의 건설에 참여하였다. 각 주들은 두 가지 뚜렷한 방식으로 국내시설 발전을 격려하였는데,	첫째, 그런 시설물들을 건설할 주정부회사(공기업)을 실제로 설립함으로써, 둘째는, 공사합동기업들이	이익을 내기 시작하도록 자금의 일부를 지원함으로써.

19세기초에 주정부들은, 광범위한 허가와 검사 프로그램을 포함하여 놀라울 정도로 많은 양의 직접	통제활동에 참가했다. 허가대상들이 19세기 경제와 오늘날 경제의 유사성과 차이점을 반영해주었는데,	즉, 19세기에 허가를 통한 주정부의 통제는 특히 행상과 여관업과 여러 종류의 소매상 등에 주로	해당되었다. 상할 수 있는 교역되는 상품들은 일반적으로 주정부의 검사를 받았다. 목재와 화약 같은	개척지의 주요 필수품들 역시 주정부의 통제를 받았다. 마지막으로 주정부는, 개인 노동자와 소비자를	돕기 위해 고안된, 노동과 사업의 직접 규제를 실험하였는데, 노동시간에 관해 최대한계를 설정하는 것과,	업체들에 의한 가격조작에 관해 규제를 하는 것 등을 포함했다.

이 기간동안에 각 주들이 경제활동을 주도했지만 연방정부도 비활동적이었던 것은 아니다.	연방정부의 목적은 서부정착을 용이하게 만드는 것과 토속산업의 발전이었다. 이 목적들을 위해서	연방정부는 여러가지 코스의 활동을 추구했다. 연방정부는 미국에서 금융활동을 안정시키기 위해서	그리고 부분적으로는, 정착을 위해서 그것이 매우 요구되는 개척지역에 비교적 쉬운 돈의 공급을	제공하기 위해서, 국립은행을 설립했다. 연방정부는 점점 더 쉬운 조건으로 일반인의 서부지역 진입을	허용했는데, 1862년에 the Homestead Act 라는 법에서 그 절정에 달했다. 이 법에 의하여 토지의 소유권은	거주를 근거로 해서만 주장될 수 있었다. 마지막으로 연방정부는, 사실상 근본적으로 보호주의라고 할 수	있는 관세제도를 만들었다, 비록 여러 지역적 이해관계에 의해서 좋은 위상을 얻기 위한 조정이 흔히	19세기 전체에 걸쳐서 관세율에 있어서의 흔한 변경을 가져왔지만...

Question 28-37

생명은 지구가 형성된지 10억년 후에 초기의 바다에서 기원했다. 그러나 대륙에 동식물이	나타나기까지는 다시 30억 년이 흘러야만 되었다. 생명체가 바다로부터 육지로 이동한 것은 아마 생명의	기원 자체만큼이나 그렇게 대단한 진화적인 변화였다.

어떤 형태의 생명체가 생활스타일에 있어서 그렇게 극적인 변화를 할 수 있었는가? 첫 번째 육상	유기체에 관한 전통적인 견해는 거대화석 □ 근본적으로 동물이나 식물의 전체를 보존하고있는 비교적 큰	표본 □ 에 근거를 둔다. 현대의 씨를 가진 식물과 양치류와 친척인 도관식물은 최초의 포괄적인	거대화석을 남겼다. 이것 때문에 육상화의 연속은 현대 육상 생태계의 진화를 반영한다고 일반적으로	추정되었었다. 이 견해에서는 원시 도관식물이 대륙의 물의 가장자리를 점령했었으며, 그 뒤에 그	식물들을 먹고사는 동물들, 그리고 다음에 식물들을 먹고사는 그 동물들을 잡아 먹고사는 동물들이	뒤따랐다. 더욱이, 그 거대화석들은, 육상 생명체는 4억년보다 약간 더 이전인 실루리아기와 데본기의	경계선이 되는 시기의 무렵에 나타나서 폭발적으로 다양화되었다는 것을 암시했다.

그러나 최근에, 이 실루리아-데본기의 지질학적 경계선이 되는 시기의 퇴적암을 자세히 조사해	오고있는 중이다. 그 바위들을 산이 담긴 그릇에 넣어서 어떤 화석들이 이 퇴적암으로부터 추출될 수	있다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 이 기술은 고대 바다의 해안 근처에 퇴적되었던 퇴적암들로부터 새로운 증거 □	식물의 미세 화석과 작은 동물의 미세한 조각들 □ 를 밝혀냈다. 많은 경우에 이 표본들은 직경에 있어서	1밀리미터의 1/10 이하이다. 그들은 수 억년 동안 묻혀있었지만, 그 화석들 중 많은 것들이 그 유기체의	유기적 잔재물로 구성된다.

이 새로 발견된 화석들은 전에 알려지지 않았던 유기체의 존재를 나타냈을 뿐만 아니라 다세포	유기체에 의한 육지의 침략의 시기를 더 이전으로 밀어내었다. 초기 동식물 사회의 본질에 관한 우리의	견해는 이제 수정되고 있다. 그리고 이러한 수정과 함께 초기 육상 생명체에 관한 새로운 사고가	시작하고있다.

Questions 38-50

오늘날 우리가 미국 민속 미술이라고 부르는 것은 사실상, 점점 증가하는 번창과 여가를 가지고서	모든 종류의 미술품 □ 특히 초상화 □ 의 시장을 만들어낸 일반적 일상 대중의, 일반적 일상 대중에	의한, 그리고 일반적 일상 대중을 위한 미술이었다. 번창하는, 특히 중산층 사회의 시민들 □ 고대	로마인이건 17세기 네덜란드의 시민들이건 19세기의 미국인이든 간에 □ 항상 초상화에 대한 뚜렷한	취향(호감)을 보여주었다. 18세기 후반부터 미국은 점점 증가하는 숫자의 그런 사람들을 가졌으며 그들의

수요를 충족시킬 수 있는 화가들의 숫자도 역시 점점 증가했다.

가장 초창기 미국의 민속미술 초상화는 New England □ 특히 커넥티컷 과 메사츄세츠 □ 로부터	나왔는데 놀라운 일이 아니다, 왜냐하면 여기는 부유하고 인구 많은 지역이고 강한 공예 전통의 중심지였기	때문이다. 1776년의 독립선언의 서명으로부터 불과 몇 십년 이내에 인구가 서쪽으로 이동하고 있었다.	그리고 초상화 화가들이 서부뉴욕, 오하이오, 켄터키, 일리노이, 그리고 미주리에서 작업하는 것을 발견할	수 있었다. 하나의 국가로서 첫 번째 세기의 중간쯤 갔을 무렵에 (건국 후 50년쯤 지나서) 미국의 인구는	대략 5배 증가했고, 처음 13주에 덧붙여서 11개의 새로운 주가 생겼다. 이 기간동안 초상화의 수요는	증가하고 증가해서 결국 카메라의 발명에 의해서 충족되었다. 1839년에 은판사진이 미국에 도입되어,	사진 시대를 열게되었고, 한 세대 이내에 이 새로운 발명품은 초상화의 인기에 종지부를 찍었다. 그래서	다시 한번 오리지날 초상화는 부자들에 의해서 주문되고 전문가에 의해 만들어지는 사치품이 되었다.

그러나 18세기 후반부터 1850년대까지의 초상화의 전성시대에, 약간의 미술적 능력을 가진 사람은	누구나 limner 가 될 수 있었다. (그런 초상화가들은 그런 이름으로 불렸었다.) 간판화가, 마차화가,	주택화가 등과 같은 지방의 장인들은 수익이 되는 부업으로 초상화를 그리기 시작했는데 ; 때때로 자기	가족을 스케치함으로서 일을 시작한 재능있는 남녀가 지역에서 명성을 얻어서 초상화 주문이 쇄도하기도	했고 ; 화가들이 페인트와 캔바스와 붓을 싸서 시골로 여행하는 것이 그만큼 가치 있는 일이라는 것을	알게되었고, 흔히 주택 장식과 초상화 그리기를 함께 했다.

Test 3

Questions 1-10

서기 1500년경에 사냥하는 사람들은 북미의 북쪽 1/3 전체를 점령했었다. 그들은 이 땅을 함께	공유했던 그 동물들을 잡아먹고 잘 살았다.  그 이전 즉. 약 4-5천년 전에 해양포유류를 사냥하는	사람들은 캐나다와 그린랜드의 북극해 연안에 거주했었다. 육지에서 사냥하는 사람들은 최소한 12,000년	동안 북부내륙의 많은 부분에 걸쳐서 거주했다.?

북미대륙의 북부지역은 좁은 베링해협을 건너서 시베리아와 북부유럽까지 연속되는 하나의 큰, 극	지역을 에워싸는 영역의 일부이다. 1500년대의 극 지역을 에워싸는 전체적인 환경은 현재의 환경과 별로	다르지 않았었다. 이 큰 땅덩어리는 대륙성기후를 가졌으며, 긴 겨울과 봄철에 걸쳐서 차가운 북극	대기에 의해 지배되었다. 여름온도는 거의 빙점에서부터 섭씨 23-27도 정도의 범위에 걸쳤고, 한편	겨울의 온도는 흔히 영하 40도 까지도 내려갔다.

지리학자들은 극 지역을 에워싸는 전체 영역을 2개의 지역으로 나누는데, 즉, 북극지방과 그 밑에	있는 아북극지방이다. 그들은 이 지역들의 지형을 각각 툰드라와 타이가라고 부른다. 북부지방의 온도는	일년 중 8-9개월동안 빙점 이하이었다. 북극지방 툰드라의 표면층보다 아래에 있는 흙은 영구히	얼어있는 상태였다. 여름의 온도가 빙점 이상으로 올라가고 땅 표면 몇 인치의 흙이 습기로 가득찰 때	조차도 그 아래층의 흙은 마치 바위처럼 굳은 영구동토로서 얼어있는 상태였다. 영구히 얼어있는	툰드라의 표면위로 물이 흐를 때에는 그것이 육상 교통을 극히 힘들게 만들었다. 아북극 타이가의	늪지역의 땅, 다른 말로 소택지역에서의 여름여행도 역시 느리고 힘들었다. 늪지의 땅이 얼어있고 눈으로	덮여있을 때인 겨울보다, 여름에는 동물을 추격하는 것이 더 힘들었다. 툰드라와 타이가 둘 다에서,	모기와 사람 무는 파리의 떼들이 고여있는 물의 웅덩이에서 번식했다. 습기가 차면 옷은 보온효과를	상실했다. 북쪽의 사람들은 추운 날씨와 관련있는 더 쉬운 여행 조건을 가져오는 계절로 계절이 바뀌기를	기다렸다. (추울 때는 땅이 얼어서 여행하기 더 좋으므로 겨울을 기다렸다). 북극지방에서 그들은 음식과	보급품을 개썰매로 운반하였고, 한편 아북극지방에서는 사람들이 눈신발이나 터보간(눈썰매)으로 빠르고	효과적으로 여행했다.

Question 11-20

□사회적 기생□은 동물의 한 종(species)이 다른 종에게 자기의 새끼들을 키우도록 맡기는 것을	포함한다. 척추동물 중에서 가장 잘 알려진 □사회적 기생동물□은 뻐꾸기와 찌르레기 같은 그런 새들인데,	암컷이 다른 종에게 속하는 둥지에 알을 낳고 주인이 키워주도록 내버려둔다.

그러나 노예성(dulotic : 개미들중에서 다른 종을 노예화시켜서 자기들에게 유리하도록 이용하는	종을 일컫는 생물학전문용어) 개미야말로 최고의 사회적 기생동물이다. 예를 들어, 폴리어거스(Polyergus)	속(종과 과의 중간분류 단계)에 속하는 개미의 특이한 행동을 고려해보자. 이 개미의 모든 종들은	스스로를 돌보는 능력을 상실했다. 일개미들이 음식을 찾아다니지도 않고, 그들의 새끼나 여왕개미를	먹여 살리지도 않고, 심지어 그들의 집을 청소하지도 않는다. 이 결함을 보완하기 위하여,	폴리어거스(Polyergus)는 이러한 잡일들을 시키기 위해서 친척인 포미카(Formica)속의 개미들로부터

일꾼들을 얻어오는데 전문화되어있다.

한번의 공격에서, 수천의 폴리어거스(Polyergus) 일개미들이 포미카(Formica)의 집을 찾아서	500피트까지 여행을 하고, 침투하고, 그들의 여왕개미와 일개미들을 내쫒고, 번데기 상태의 새끼들을	잡아서 자신들의 집으로 끌어온다. 포획된 새끼들은 이미 옛날에 잡혀와서 거주하고 있던	포미카(Formica) 일개미들에 의해서 키워지고 마침내 자라는 번데기가 허물을 벗어 기존의	포미카(Formica)에 추가되는데, 이들이 그 혼합거주 집단을 관리한다. 포미카(Formica) 일개미들은	음식을 구해오고 그것을 그 집단에 사는 두 종의 개미들에게 공급한다. 그들은 역시 쓰레기를 청소하고	숫자가 증가함에 따라 새로운 방을 발굴한다.

폴리어거스(Polyergus)가 포미카(Formica)에 의존하는 진정한 정도(정말로 어느 정도까지	의존하는가)는 일개미의 숫자가 현재의 집에 비해 너무 많아지게 될 때 확실히 보여진다. 잡혀온	포미카(Formica)들은 새로운 집을 얻을 장소를 찾아내어, 그 혼합거주 집단으로 돌아와서 추가적으로	포미카(Formica)집에 사는 친구들을 모집한다, 7일간 지속되는 하나의 기간동안 포미카(Formica)개미들은	모든 폴리어거스(Polyergus)의 알과 유충과 번데기와 모든 폴리어거스(Polyergus)의 어른개미들과	심지어는 여왕개미까지 그 새 집으로 운반해준다.

세상에 있는 약 8,000 종의 개미들 중에서 폴리어거스(Polyergus)의 모든 5종과 다른 속(종과 과의	중간분류 단계)의 약 200종이 다른 개미들과 어느 정도의 기생관계를 진화시켜왔다.

Question 21-30

Winterthur 은 박물관이면서 동시에 하나의 집이다. 장식적 미술을 위해 사용되는 박물관은 많고	또한 주택박물관(사람이 거주하는 집이면서 박물관인 곳)도 많이 있다, 그러나 미국에서 큰 시골집에	큰 소장품이 전시되는 곳은 드물다. Winterthur 는 한 가족의 연속적인 여러 세대를 거쳐오면서 1	세기이상 개인저택이었다. 1929년과 1931년 사이에 행해진 대규모 개수작업 후에도 그 집은 한 가족의	주거지로 계속 남아있었다. 이 사실은 그 박물관의 분위기와 효과에 중요성을 띈다. 사람이 거주하는	집으로서의 인상이 방문객에게 뚜렷한데 ; 방들이 마치 잠시 전에 비워진 것처럼 보인다. □ 그 가구의	원래주인에 의해서인지 아니면 최근에 거주한사람에 의해서인지는 개인적 해석의 문제가 될 수 있다.	Winterthur 는 그 안에 가구와 건축적 요소들의 한 소장품이 조합된 하나의 집으로 남아있다. 영국의	시골집처럼 그것은 하나의 유기적 구조물이다. 그 소장품과 그것이 전시되는 방식이 변해온 것처럼 그	집도 역시 수년간에 걸쳐서 변화해왔다. 그 변화들은 3가지, 즉 (1)미국 미술의 발전하는 개념들,	(2)수집가와 학생들 측에서의 증가된 지식, 그리고 (3)각 시대별 방의 전시물들에 있어서의 역사적 효과의	성취를 향한 진전 등과 일치해왔다. Winterthur 의 방들은 이러한 추세를 따랐지만, 여전히 개인주택의	특성을 유지했다.

전시기법으로서 시대별 방의 개념이, 미술작품을 하나의 흐름 □ 관객을 위해서 그들을 더욱 큰	효과가 있도록 보여주고, 그들에 더 큰 의미를 부여하는 그러한 흐름 □ 으로 제공하려는 시도에서, 지난	수년간에 걸쳐 발전되어왔다. 자연사 박물관의 서식지 그룹에 비유될 수 있는, 이 시대별 방은 생동감	있고 흥미 있는 방식으로 장식미술들을 표현하고,  스타일과 시대와 제조장소에 의해 연관성 있는	전시물들을 (관객이) 조합해볼(연결시켜볼) 기회를 제공한다.

Questions 31-40

현대 만화는 19세기말 미국의 큰 신문사들 사이의 신문 전쟁에서 실탄으로 시작되었다. 첫 번째	완전 칼라 만화는 1894년 1월 Joseph Pulitzer 가 소유한 뉴욕의 World 라는 신문에 등장했다. 오늘날의	일요만화와 비슷한, 첫 번째 정규 주간 완전 칼라 만화(부록)는 2년 후에 William Randolph Hearst 의	경쟁이 되는 뉴욕 신문 the Morning Journal 에 등장했다.

둘 다 대단히 인기 있었으며, 출판업자들은 뉴스를 만화로 보충해주는 것이 신문판매를 부추긴다는	것을 깨달았다. 1896년에 the Morning Journal 은 "Yellow Kid□ 라는 또 하나의 특별기획을 시작했는데,	이것은 미국최초의 연속적 만화캐릭터였다. 그 창조자인 Richard Outcault 는 야망에 찬 Hearst 에	의해서 World 로부터 스카웃되었었다. "Yellow Kid□ 는 여러 면에서 개척자였다. 그것의 유머스러운	대화는 차후의 등장인물들의 특징을 지워주게된 엄격하게 도시적인 익살극이었다. 그리고 그것은 각	만화의 내부에, 일반적으로 인물의 머리 위에 위치하는, 대화 풍선(speech ballon)을 도입했다. 후기	만화들의 모든 요소를 함께 결합시킨 첫 번째 만화는 Rudolph Dirks 의 "Katzenjammer Kids" 라는	것인데, 19세기 유럽의 풍자극인 Wilhelm Busch 라는 사람의 Max and Moritz 를 토대로 한 것이었다.	1897년 처음으로 발표된 "Kids" 만화는 장래 미국만화의 원판(효시)로 역할을 했다. 그것은 대화	풍선(speech ballon)을 포함했을 뿐만 아니라 등장인물의 지속적인 등장과, 초창기 만화의 더 큰	파노라마 같은 장면을 폐지한, 작은 규칙적인 칸들로 나누어졌다.

신문 연합이 전국에 걸쳐서 만화의 인기를 확산시키는데 중요한 역할을 했다. 주간 칼라만화가 먼저	나왔지만, 일간 흑백 만화도 머지않아 곧 나왔다. 그 첫 번째는 시카고에서 American 이라는 신문에	나왔다. 그 뒤에 많은 모방작품들이 따랐고, 1915년까지 흑백 만화는 전국적으로 일간신문의 필수요소가	되었다.

Question 41-50

가장 깊은 부분에 있는 것까지도, 바닷물의 모든 한 방울은 조수를 만들어내는 그 힘들에 반응한다.	바다에 영향을 주는 어떤 다른 힘도 그렇게 강하지는 못하다. 조수와 비교할 때, 바람에 의해서	만들어지는 파도는 물표면 아래 불과 100 패텀(약 180 미터)에서 느껴지는 표면의 움직임이다. 조류도	역시 그들의 인상적인(대단한) 쓸어가는 힘에도 불구하고 위쪽 수백 패텀 이상을 포함하지는 못한다.

조수는 달과 더 멀리 있는 태양의 인력에 대한 바닷물의 반응이다. 이론적으로는 그 물과 우주의	가장 바깥쪽에 있는 별 사이에도 중력이 있다. 그러나 실제로는 먼 별들의 중력이 아주 작아서 달의	콘트롤에 의하여, 그리고 더 작은 정도까지는 태양의 콘트롤에 의하여 제거된다. 달이 매일 평균적으로	15분씩 늦게 뜨는 것과 마찬가지로 대부분의 장소에서 만조의 시간이 그에 대응하여 매일 늦어진다.	그리고 달이 월간주기로 차고 기우는 것과 마찬가지로 조수의 높이도 역시 변화한다. 달이 하늘에서 가장	작은 조각일 때와 달이 보름달일 때 조수의 움직임이 가장 강하다. 이것들이 월력으로 가장 높은 만조와	가장 낮은 간조이며 □춘계 조수□라고 불린다. 이 시기에 태양, 달, 지구가 거의 일직선이며 두 천체의	인력이 합쳐져서 해변가의 바닷물을 높게 해주고, 파도를 바닷가 절벽위로 부딪치게 하고, 항구에 높은	조수를 끌어온다. 매월 두 번씩, 달이 반달일 때, 태양, 달, 지구가 삼각형의 꼭지점에 놓여있고 태양과	달의 인력이 서로 반대일 때 □소조(neap tide)"라고 불리는 온화한 조수운동이 발생한다. 그 때는 만조와	간조사이의 차이가 한달 중 어느 다른 때보다도 더 적다.

Test 4

Questions 1-8

호텔은 미국을 함께 묶어준 가장 초기의 시설들 중에 속한다. 그들은 지역사회에 대한 열광적인	추구의 전조인 것은 물론이고 지역사회의 창조물이며 피조물이었다. 19세기 초반부터도 미국인들은	공적인 목적과 사적인 목적을 위해 그리고 비즈니스 목적과 오락의 목적을 위해 전국의 곳곳에서	모여드는 습관을 형성하고 있었다. 집회는 새로운 행사가 되었고, 호텔들은 집회를 가능하게 해주는	뚜렷하게 미국적인 시설이었다. 대통령 후보를 선출하기 위한 주요 정당의 첫 번째 전국집회(1831년	12월 12일 모여서 Henry Clay를 대통령 후보로 지명했던 공화당 전당대회)는 당시 전국에서 최고라는	평을 받았던 볼티모어의 한 호텔에서 열렸다. 볼티모어 시에 200개의 객실을 갖춘 6층 짜리 건물인	Barnum's City Hotel 의 존재는 왜 많은 다른 초기의 정치 집회가 거기서 열렸는가를 설명한다.

결국, 미국의 호텔들은 많은 전국 집회를 가능하게 했을 뿐만 아니라 즐겁고 경쾌하게 만들었다.	멀리로부터 모든 종류의 그룹의 대표자들을 정기적으로 모으는 점점 성장하는 관습이 □ 정치 집회뿐만이	아니라 상업적, 전문적, 학술적, 직업적인 집회들의 관습 □ 이번에는 증가하는 호텔들을 지지했다.	20세기 중반까지 집회들은 전국 모든 호텔의 연간 객실 점유의 1/3이상을 차지했다. 다 합쳐서 천 만명	이상의 사람이 참석하면서 일 년에 약 1만8천 개의 집회가 개최되었다.

19세기 미국의 호텔주인들은, 더 이상은 18세기의 다정하고 손님을 공경하는 유럽식 여관주인이	아니고, 주도적인 시민이 되었다. 지역사회에서 큰 지분을 가지고서 그들은 지역 사회를 번창하도록 큰	영향력을 행사했다. 지역의 □대중을 위한 궁전□의 소유주이며 관리자로서, 그들은 주요 지역사회 주요	관광장소를 만들고 형성하는 사람들이었다. 외국으로부터 온 관광객들은 이러한 높은 사회적인 지위를	보고서 다소 놀랐다.

Question 9-18

구슬은 아마도 인간이 소유했던 가장 초기의 내구적인 장식품들이었을 것이다. 그리고 그들이	주인과 가졌던 그 친밀한 관계들은, 구슬이 고대 고고학적 발굴지에서 발견되는 가장 흔한 품목 중에	속한다는 사실에 의해서 반영된다. 오늘날과 같이 과거에도 남자, 여자, 그리고 아이들은 자신들을 구슬로	장식했다. 아직도 어떤 문화권에서는 어떤 구슬이  태어나서 죽을 때까지 착용되고, 그 다음에는 사후를	위해서 그 주인과 함께 묻혀진다. 매일 착용하기 때문에 발생되는  마모는 구슬표면의 특징을 변형시키고	만약 그들이 오랫동안 묻혀있으면 부식의 효과가 그들의 외모를 더욱 변화시킬 수 있다, 그래서, 사용에	의해서 그리고 시간의 효과에 의해서 구슬에는 흥미가 덧붙여진다.

그들의 착용가능성 이외에도 보석으로서 또는 의상에 첨가됨으로써 구슬은 모든 수집품의 바람직한	특징들을 소유한다 : 즉, 그들은 내구성 있고, 휴대 가능하며, 무한한 다양성으로 구입할 수 있고,	오늘날의 시장에서 마찬가지로 흔히 그들의 본래의 문화적 흐름 속에서도 귀중하다. 보기에도 그리고	만지기에도 즐거운 구슬이란 것들은, 어떤 사람에게  그것을 다루고 그것을 분류하도록 강요하는 그러한	형태, 색깔, 재료들로써 만들어져 나온다.

구슬은 폭로되기를 기다리고있는 비밀의 작은 덩어리이다 : 즉, 그들의 역사, 제조, 문화적 흐름,	경제적 역할, 그리고 장식적인 용도 등이 모두, 사람들이 밝혀내기를 희망하는 정보의 요점들이다. 가장	세속적인 구슬조차도 먼 거리를 여행해왔고, 많은 인간의 경험에 접촉되었을 수 있다. 구슬연구가 많은	다양한 분야로부터 정보를 수집해야한다. 아주 좁은 분야처럼 보이는 것에 있어서 전문화되는 한편,	하나의 일반화(*)를 할 줄 아는 사람이 되어야하는 것 이외에도, 구슬연구가는 거의 또는 전혀	문서상기록이 없는 주요 재료들의 문제에 직면한다. 인종학적인 흥미를 불러일으키는 많은 고대의	구슬들은 흔히 그들의 원래의 문화적인 추세(흐름)로부터 분리되었다.

구슬의 특별한 매력들은 구슬연구의 독특함에 기여한다.(독특함을 더해준다.) □문명의 작은	변화□라고 흔히 간주되는 한편, 구슬들은 모든 문화의 일부이다. 그리고 그들은 고고학적인 장소의	시기를 측정하기 위해서 그리고 상업적, 기술적, 문화적 세련도(발전된 정도)를 알아보기 위해서	사용된다.

Question 19-32

조류세계에서 부리의 디자인은 진화적 미세 조정(세밀하게 환경에 잘 적응됨)의 주요한 예이다.	검은머리물새(oystercatcher)와 같은 해양 조류들은 먹이의 단단히 봉해진 조개껍질을 비틀어 여는데	그들의 부리를 사용하고, 벌새는 가장 깊은 즙을 포함하는 꽃을 탐색하기 위해서 송곳 같은 부리를	가지고있으며, 키위새는 그들 부리의 끝에 위치한 콧구멍의 덕분으로 벌레들을 냄새로 찾아낸다. 그러나	잣새(crossbill)보다 더욱 그들의 음식의 근원과 밀접하게 연관되어있는 새는 별로 없다. 이	핀치새(피리새 finch) 중의 두 종(species)은, 그들 부리의 윗부분과 아랫부분이 가운데서 만나기보다는	오히려 교차하는 그 방식을 보고서 이름이 붙여졌는데, 북미의 상록수 숲에 살며 침엽수의 솔방울 안에	들어있는 씨를 먹고산다.

잣새(crossbill)가 솔방울을 찾아냈을 때 부리의 효용성이 뚜렷이 나타난다. 아래부리의 수평적	움직임을 사용하면서, 그 새는 솔방울 껍질의 두 개의 겹쳐있는 scale(솔방울껍질에 있는 비늘모양의 각	조각들)을 분리시켜서 씨를 노출시킨다. 교차되는 위, 아래의 부리가 그 새로 하여금 부리 끝 부분에서	강한 깨무는 힘을 발휘할 수 있게 해주는데, 이 힘은 scale 사이에서 그 부리들을 잘 움직이는데 있어서	그리고 scale 들을 벌려서 여는데 있어서 매우 중요하다. 다음에 그 새는 혀를 갈라진 틈 속으로 뱀처럼	집어넣고 씨를 끌어낸다. 부리와 혀의 결합된 움직임을 이용하여, 목질의 씨 껍질을 쪼개서 열고, 그	목질의 씨 껍질을 버리고, 영양있는 그 속의 낱알을 삼킨다. 이 전체 과정이 단지 몇 초밖에 걸리지	않으며 하루에도 수백번 되풀이된다.

여러 다른 종의 잣새(crossbill)들의 부리는 다양하다. □ 어떤 것들은 두껍고 깊으며, 어떤 것들은	가늘고 얕다. 대체적으로, 큰 부리를 가진 잣새(crossbill)는 큰 솔방울로부터 씨를 확보하는데 더	잘하며, 반면에 작은 부리를 가진 잣새(crossbill)는 작고 얇은 scale로 된 솔방울로부터 씨를 빼내는데	더욱 민첩하다. 더욱이, 솔방울이 자연적으로 약간 벌어져있거나 꽉 다물어져있는 그 정도가, 어떤 부리	디자인이 가장 어울리는가를 판단하는데 도움이 된다.

하나의 변칙적인 새는 □Newfoundland 잣새□ 라고 알려져있는 붉은 잣새의 한 종이다. 이 새는	크고 튼튼한 부리를 가지고있지만, 대부분의 Newfoundland 침엽수는 작은 솔방울을 가지고 있다, 이	솔방울들은 가냘픈 부리와 흰 날개를 가진 잣새들이 의존하고있는(먹고사는) 그 솔방울들과 같은	종류이다,

Question 33-39

당신이 독립선언문의 초창기 판 중 몇몇을 자세히 살펴보면, John Hancock 과 거기에 서명한	55명의 화려한 서명위에 당신은 한 여자의 이름 Mary Katherine Goddard 를 역시 발견할 것이다.	독립선언문의 첫 번째 공식판, 즉 서명자들의 이름을 포함하고 그로 인해서 모든 13개 식민지의 지지를	예고했던 그 첫 번째 판을 출판한 것은, 볼티모어의  출판업자였던 바로 그녀였다.

Mary Goddard 는, 그녀의 오빠가 1762년에 Rhode Island 주의 Providence 라는 도시에서	인쇄소를 개업했을 때 24세의 나이로 처음 출판계에 들어왔다. 그가 일을 진행하면서 동업자나 채권자들	때문에 곤란에 처했을 때 가게를 운영하도록 남겨진(가게의 운영을 맡게된) 사람은 Mary Goddard 와	어머니였다. 1765년에 그들은 Providence Gazette 라는 주간신문을 발행하기 시작했다. 그녀의 오빠가	Philadelphia 에서 그리고 다시 Baltimore 에서 사업을 시작했을 때 그에게는 비슷한 문제가 다시	따라오는 것 같았다. 그래서 매번 Ms. Goddard 가 신문들을 운영하도록 불려들여졌다. 1773 에	볼티모어의 첫 번째 신문 Maryland Jounal 을 시작한 후에 그녀의 오빠는 식민지 우편 서비스를	만들려고 하면서 무일푼이 되었다. 그가 채무자수감소에 있는 동안, Mary Katherine Goddard 의 이름이	처음으로 신문의 발행인 난에 올랐다.

1776년 미국 의회가 Philadelphia 로부터 그쪽으로 피난왔을 때, 의회는 그녀에게 1777년 1월에	독립선언문의 공식판을 인쇄하도록 위임했다. 선언문을 인쇄한 후에 그녀는 배달부들에게 직접 자기의	돈으로 지불하며 선언문을 식민지 전역에 걸쳐 배부하도록 했다.

독립전쟁동안에 Mary Goddard 는 계속해서 볼티모어의 유일한 신문을 발행했는데, 어떤 역사가는	그 신문이 □식민지 중에서는 누구에게도 뒤지지 않는다(최고다).□ 라고 주장했다. 1775 년부터 1789	년까지 그녀는 BenJamin Franklin 대통령으로부터 임명을 받아서 그 도시의 우체국장을 지냈다. 그리고	그녀는 연방정부의 직책을 가졌던 최초의 여자로 간주된다.

Question 40-50

은하계는 우주의 주요 구성 단위이다. 하나의 은하계는 수백만의 별들로 구성된 하나의 거대한	가족이다. 그리고 그것은 자신의 중력장에 의하여 함께 묶여있다. 물질세계의 대부분은 가스, 먼지 등과	함께 별들의 은하계들로 조직되어있다.

3 가지 주요형태의 은하계들이 있는데, 나선형, 타원형, 부정형 등이다. 은하수는 나선형	은하계이다. 중심의 핵으로부터 나타나는 두 개의 나선형 팔을 가진, 별들로 이루어진 평평한 원반형이다.	모든 은하계의 1/4 정도가 이 형태이다. 나선형 은하계들은, 그 안에서 새로운 별들이 형성되는	□별들간의 가스(interstellar gas)□가 잘 공급된다 :  회전하는 나선모양이 은하계를 휩쓸고 지나갈 때	그것은 가스와 먼지를 압축해서 그 팔 안에 밝고 젊은 별들의 형성을 시작시킨다. 타원형 은하계들은	뚜렷한 구조가 없이 대칭적인 타원형 또는 구형의 형태를 가진다. 그 구성원 별들의 대부분은 매우	늙었고, 타원형 은하계는 □별들간의 가스(interstellar gas)□가 없으므로 그 안에서 새로운 별들이 형성되지	않는다. 우주에서 가장 크고 가장 밝은 은하계들은 타원형인데 태양의 질량의 1013 배의 질량을 가지며,	이 거인들은 흔히 강한 전파 발산의 근원이 되기도 하는데, 이 경우에 그들은 전파은하계(radio	galaxy)라고 불린다. 모든 은하계의 2/3 정도는 타원형이다. 부정형 은하계는 모든 은하계의 1/10 가량을	구성하며, 많은 소 분류로 세분된다.

우주에서의 측량은 지구상에서의 측량과는 꽤 다르다. 지구상의 어떤 거리들은 시간의 간격으로써	표현될 수도 있는데, 예를 들면 한 대륙에서 다른 대륙으로 항공여행에 걸리는 시간, 또는 직장까지	운전해서 가는데 걸리는 시간 등이다. 이렇게 우리가 익숙한 척도와 비교할 때 은하계들까지의 거리는	이해할 수 없을 정도로 크다. 그러나 그들도 시간 척도를 사용함으로써 더 다루기 쉬워지는데, 이	경우에는 빛이 일년동안 여행하는 거리를 말한다. 그러한 척도에서 가장 가까운 나선형 은하계인	안드로메다 은하계는 200만 광년 떨어져있다. 망원경으로 볼 수 있는 가장 먼 발광체들은 아마도 100억	광년 정도 멀리 있다고 여겨진다. 그들의 빛은 지구가 형성되기도 전에 이미 반쯤 와있었다. 가까운	처녀자리 은하계로부터 나온 빛은 아직도 파충류가 동물의 세계를 지배하던 시절에 출발한 것이다.

Test 5

Question 1-8

독특하게 미국적인 건축은 Frank Lloyd Wright 와 함께 시작되었는데, 그는 형태가 기능의 따라야한다는 충고를 가슴깊이 새겼었고, 그는 또 건물이란 것을 독립된 건축적 물체로 간주한 것이 아니고, 땅과 지역과 사회를 모두 포함하는  하나의 유기적 전체의 일부분으로 간주했었다. 매우 실제적인 면에서 보면 식민지시대 뉴잉글랜드의 가옥들과 남부 농장들 중의 일부는 매우 기능적이었었다. 그러나 Wright 야 말로 가정용 건물뿐 아니라 공공건물에도 기능주의를 공식적인 원리로 만들었던(삼았던) 첫 번째 건축가였다.

일찍이 1906년에 그는 일리노이 주의 Oak Park 라는 곳에 the Unity Temple 이란 건물을 건축했는데, 이것은 미국에서 많은 일을 해서 종교적인 건축을 혁명적으로 바꾸었던 그 교회들 중의 첫 번째였다. 그 이후로 그는 자신의 천재성을 집, 학교, 사무실 건물, 공장 등과 같은 여러 가지의 구조물들로 돌렸는데, 그 중에는 뉴욕 주의 버팔로 시에 있는 그 유명한 Larkin Building 과 위스콘신주의 Racine 에 있는 Johnson Wax Company Building 등이 있다.

Question 9-15

빙하는 근본적으로 두 종류가 있는데, (1) 밑에 깔려있는 어떤 지형이든 별로 관계없이 모든 방향으로 밖으로 흐르는 것과 (2) 지형에 의해서 특정한 경로에 국한되는 것 등이다.

첫 번째 범주의 빙하는 대륙전체를 덮는 거대한 담요형태를 포함하는데, 올바른 이름은 ice sheet 이다. 빙하가 ice sheet 로서의 자격이 되기 위해서는 50,000 평방 킬로미터 이상의 땅이 빙하로 덮여 있어야한다. ice sheet 의 일부가 바다위로 뻗쳐나갈 때 그들은 ice shelves 를 형성한다.

약 20,000 년 전에 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 가 남부 알래스카, 서부 캐나다, 그리고 미국서부지역의 거의 모든 산들을 덮었었다. 북부 알버타 지역에서는 가장 두꺼운 지점에서 깊이가 3 km 되었다. 현재 지구상에는 단지 두 개의 ice sheet 이 남아있는데, 그린랜드와 남극을 덮고있는 그것들이다.

모든 방향으로 밖으로 흐르지만 50,000 평방 킬로미터 이하의 땅을 덮고있는 어떤 반구형의 얼음 덩어리이든지 ice cap 이라고 불린다. 요즈음 ice cap 은 드물지만 북부 캐나다와 Baffin Island 지역과 Queen Elizabeth Islands 지역에 어느 정도의 숫자가 있다.

두 번째 범주의 빙하는 일반적으로 산악빙하 (mountain glacier 또는 alpine glacier)라고 불리는 다양한 형태와 사이즈를 가진 것들을 포함한다. 산악빙하는 전형적으로, 그들의 흐름을 컨트롤하는 지형에 의해서 구분된다. 그것이 여러 방향으로 밖으로 흐른다는 점에 있어서 ice cap 과 닮은, 한가지 형태의 산악빙하는 ice field 라고 불린다. ice field 와

ice cap 의 차이는 미묘하다. 근본적으로 ice field 의 흐름은 둘러싼 지형에 의해서 어느 정도 컨트롤되고, 따라서 ice cap 의 반구형 모양을 가지지 않는다. 알래스카의 Wrangell 산맥, St. Elias 산맥, Chugach 산맥과 북부 British Columbia 에 여러 개의 ice field 가 있다.

커다란 ice field 보다 덜 화려한 것은 가장 흔한 형태의 산악빙하 즉. 권곡(cirque)빙하와 계곡(valley)빙하이다. 권곡(cirque)빙하는 땅 표면의 움푹 파인 곳(depression)에서 발견되고 특징적인 원형을 가진다. 지형에 의해서 통제되는 계곡(valley)빙하의 얼음은 계곡을 따라 흐르고, 모퉁이를 따라 굽어지고, 절벽 위에서 (아래로) 떨어진다.

Question 16-22

남아프리카의 스와트크란(Swartkran) 동굴 집결지에서 발굴된 도구와 손뼈들은, Australopithecus robustus 라고 알려져 있는 초기인간의 가까운 친척이, 그 종들이 약 1백만 년 전 멸종되기보다 훨씬 이전에 원시적 도구를 만들어서 사용했을지도 모른다는 것을 암시한다. 그 종족은, 인간의 직접 조상인 Homo habilis (다른 말로 handy man)들이 그렇게 하기 훨씬 전에조차도 원시적 도구를 만들고 사용했을 수도 있다. Homo habilis 와 그들의 후손 Homo eretus 는 100만년 이상 동안 남아프리카의 평원에서 Australopithecus robustus 와 공존했었다.

남아프리카의 스와트크란(Swartkran) 동굴은 1940년대 이래로 계속 발굴중이다. 그 동굴에서 화석을 포함하는 퇴적암층 중에서 가장 오래된 것들은, 그 시기가 약 190만 년 전으로 거슬러 올라가며, 동물과 원시 도구와 두 종류이상의 유인원과 비슷한 호미니드(hominid 인류의 조상을 총칭하는 말)의 광범위한 잔재물을 포함한다. 주요한 최근발견은 Australopithecus robustus 의 손뼈를 포함했는데, 이것은 그러한 뼈들이 발견된 첫 번째 이었다. Australopithecus robustus 의 손의 가장 중요한 특징은 pollical distal thumb tip, 즉 엄지손가락의 마지막 뼈이다. 그 뼈는 □인간에게만 독특한□ 근육(flexor pollicis longus)을 위한 부착지점을 가졌는데, 옛날에는 그것이 더 후세의 조상에게서만 발견되었던 것이었다. 그 근육은 Australopithecus robustus 에게 마주볼 수 있는 엄지손가락을 주었는데, 이것은 그들에게 물체(여러 가지 도구를 포함하여)를 쥘 수 있게 하는 특징이었다. 그 연구가들은 역시 같은 퇴적암 층에서 원시 뼈들과 석기도구들, 특히 땅파는 도구들을 발견하였다.

Australopithecus robustus 는 신체가 더 강하게 구성되어있었다, 즉 그들의 후손보다 인류학적 관점에서 보면 더 □강인□하였다. 그들은 넓은 얼굴, 무거운 턱뼈, 그리고 단단한 과일, 씨앗, 식물의 섬유질 많은 땅속에 있는 부분 등을 먹기 위해 사용되었던 육중한 으깨고 가는 이빨을 가졌다. 그들은 서서 걸어다녔는데, 그것이 그들로 하여금 도구를 운반하고 사용할 수 있도록 허용했다. 대부분의 전문가들은 과거에 □Home habilis 가 Australopithecus robustus 의 자리를 대치할 수 있었다, 왜냐하면 도구를 사용하는 전자(Home habilis)의 능력이 그들에게 타고난 우월성을 부여했기 때문에□ 라고 믿었었다. 그런데, Australopithecus robustus 도 역시 도구를 사용했다는 발견은, 연구가들이 그들의 멸종에 대한 다른 설명을 찾아야만할 것이라는 것을 의미한다. 아마도, 자연적으로 자라는 식물에 대한 그들의 의존성이, 기후가 더 건조하고 추워짐에 따라 그들의 멸망을 가져왔든가, 또는 Homo habilis 가 더 큰 두뇌를 가져서 간단히 더 세련된 도구를 만들었기 때문인지도 모른다.

Question 24-29

금세기 처음 20년은 미생물 탐구가들에 의해서 지배되었다. 이 탐구가들은 수 세기동안 가장 치명적인 병들(결핵, 콜레라, 디프테리아)에 대해서 책임이 있는 미생물들을 하나하나씩 차례로 추적해 들어갔다. 그러나 어떤 미생물도 관련이 없는 심각한 병들(괴혈병, 펠라그라, 구루병, 각기병 등)이 아직도 남아있었다. 그리고 이 병들은 식사에서 미량물질인 비타민의 결핍에 의해서 발생된다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 그 병들은 그러한 비타민을 포함하는 음식을 섭취함으로써 예방되거나 치료될 수 있었다. 그래서 1920년대와 1930년대에 영양학은 하나의 과학이 되었고 비타민 탐구가들은 미생물 탐구가들을 대치하게 되었다.

1940 연대와 1950년대에 생화학자들은, 왜 그 비타민들 각각이 건강에 필수적인가를 알아내려고 노력했다. 그들은, 신진대사에서 주효소들이, 세포에게 성장과 기능을 위한 에너지를 제공하는 그 화학작용을 수행하기 위한 보조효소로서 어떤 한가지 또는 다른 한가지의 비타민에 의존한다는 것을 밝혀내었다. 이제 이 효소 탐구가들이 중심 무대를 차지하였다.

당신은 그 효소 탐구가들이 유전자 □ 각각 효소의 청사진 □ 를 추적하는 그리고 당뇨병, 포자섬유증 같은 유전병을 발생시키는 결함있는 유전자들을 찾아내고 있는, 새로운 종류의 탐구가들에 의해서 대치되었다는 것을 알고 있다. 이 유전자 탐구가, 다른 말로 유전자 엔지니어들은 유전자를 밝혀내서 무성생식하기 위해서 재조합 DNA 기술을 사용한다. 그리고 의학을 위해서 그리고 농업의 더 나은 생산성을 위해서 홀몬과 백신의 대량생산을 위한 공장을 만들어내도록 유전자들을 박테리아세포와 식물에 도입(주입)시킨다. 생화학은 수십억 달라의 산업이 되었다.

과학에 있어서의 가차없는(쉬지않는) 발전에 비추어볼 때, 유전자 탐구가들도 한창 전성기에 대치될 것이다. 언제 누구에 의해서 ? 어떤 종류의 연구가들이 저물어가는 이 세기의 마지막 10년과 다음세기 처음 수 십년동안 scene 을 주도할것인가 ? 스폿라이트를 받을 그 연구가들이, 효소와 유전자 연구가들의 기술을 두뇌의 기능에 응용하는 신경생물학자들이 아닐지 궁금하다. 그들을 뭐라고 부를까? 머리 연구가. 다음에 다시 그들에 관해 이야기하자.

Question 30-35

19세기 중엽에 미국은 중공업을 발전시키기 위해 개발될 수 있는 엄청난 천연자원을 가졌다. 기계류, 교통시설, 소비재의 제조에 있어서 귀중한 원자재의 대부분이, 작업을 가하여 부를 창조할 수 있도록 준비된 상태로 놓여있었다. 철, 석탄, 석유 □ 산업 성장의 기본적인 요소들 □ 가 풍부했었고 단지, 기술적인 전문성, 조직화된 기술, 그리고 노동의 적용만을 필요로 하고있었다.

이 산업화를 향한 움직임에 있어서 하나의 중요한 발전은 바로 철도의 성장이었다. 철도망은 급격하게 팽창해서 결국 미국의 철도 지도는 거미줄처럼 보이게 되었고, 그래서, 그 강철 철로가, 원자재들의 모든 중요한 근원지와 그들의 제조장소들과 그들의 분배 중심지들을 연결했다. 철도는 이 중요한 중심지들을 연결함으로써 뿐만 아니라 그 자신이 엄청난 양의 연료와 철과 석탄을 소비함으로써 산업성장에 기여했다.

많은 요소들이 새로 출현하는 생산방식에 영향을 주었다. 예를 들면, 기계도구들, 즉 상품을 만들기 위해 사용되는 도구들이 19세기 후반에 지속적으로 향상되었다 □ 항상 더 신속한 생산과 더 낮은 단위 원가를 주목하면서. 공장의 생산품들은 생산노동자와 분배자들을 수용하는 성장하는 도시들에 의해서 빨리 흡수되었다. 증가하는 도시인구는 증가된 농업생산품에 의해 음식을 공급받았는데, 이번에는 다시 그 농업생산품들이 새로운 농사기계의 사용으로 더욱 생산성이 높아졌다. 미국농업생산은 소비자의 수요에 발맞추었고(수요를 충족시켰고), 그러면서도 또한 유럽의 산업중심지로 팔 수 있을(수출할 수 있을) 만큼의 잉여상품을 가졌다.

공장을 가동하고 철도를 건설한 그 노동력은 부분적으로는, 사람이 농업기계에 의해서 대치된 미국의 농업지역들로부터, 부분적으로는 아시아에서, 그리고 부분적으로는 남부유럽으로부터 모집되었다. 이제 유럽은 파도와 같은 많은 이민자들을 동부와 남부유럽으로부터 미국으로 보내기 시작했다. □ 그들의 대부분은 원래 가난한 농부였으나 미국의 산업지역에 정착한 사람들이었다. 미국경제의 이 엄청난 확장에 자금을 대줄 돈은 대부분은 아직도 유럽의 금융가들로부터 왔는데, 그러나 이제 미국인들은 그들의 성장이 자신들의 자금시장에서 자금을 지원 받을 수 있는 그 날에 접근하고있었다.

Question 36-44

세상의 인구가 많은지역과 건조한지역으로 빙산을 끌고와서 민물을 얻을수있다는 개념이, 전에는 현실보다는 만화에 더 어울리는 농담으로 취급되었었다, 그러나 지금 그것이 많은 나라들에 의해서 꽤 진지하게 고려되고있다. 특히,

인류는 음식이 떨어지는 것보다도 더 빠른 속도로 인간의 증가가 민물의 공급을 능가할 것이라고 과학자들이 경고한 이래로. 빙하는 최근까지만 해도 무시되어왔던 민물의 근원이다. 지구상의 민물 공급원 중의 3/4은 아직도 빙하로 묶여있는데, 빙하는 전세계 모든 강들에 1,000년 동안 물을 대줄 수 있을 만큼 그렇게 엄청난 양의 민물의 저장소(아직 열리지 않은)이다. 매년 모든 바다 위에는 극지방의 ice cap 으로부터 쪼개져 나오는10,000 개의 빙산에 담겨져 있는 7,659 조 톤의 얼음이 떠있는데, 그 중 90%는 남극에서 온다. 얕은 대륙붕에 걸쳐서 뻗어있는 거대한 빙하는 일년 내내 빙산을 탄생시킨다. 빙산들은, 바닷물이 얼 때 생겨나는 바다얼음과는 다른 것이다; 오히려 그들은 완전히 육지에서 생겨나서 빙하가 바닷물 위까지 뻗어갈 때 쪼개져나간다. 그들이 극지방으로부터 멀리 표류해갈 때 빙산은 때때로 신기하게도 바람의 반대방향으로 움직이는데, 이것은 물밑의 조류에 의해 끌려가는 것이다. 그들은 작은 얼음 조각보다는 더 천천히 녹으므로, 대서양의 적도로부터 남위35도까지 표류하는 것으로 알려져왔다. <C> 그들을 찾아내어서 세상에서 그들이 필요한 지역으로 조종해서 가져가는 것은 힘들지 않을 것이다.

(오히려) 어려움은, 따뜻한 기후에서 급격히 녹는 것을 방지하는 것과, 민물을 큰 양으로 해안까지 깔때기형식으로 끌어들이는 것과 같은 기술적인 문제에서 발생한다. 그러나 끌어오면서 빙산이 그 부피의 반이 녹아버린다 하더라도 그 나머지가 공급할 수 있는 물은 소금제거법, 즉 물로부터 소금을 제거함으로써 생산될 수 있는 것보다 훨씬 더 싸다.

Question 45-50

두 개의 대양과 하나의 큰 바다가, 한쪽 면만을 제외하고 알래스카의 모든 면을 둘러싸고 있어서, 그 주에게 미국에서 가장 긴 해안선을 제공하고 있다.  사실상 모든 반도와 섬들의 해안선을 고려하면 알래스카는 모든 다른 49주를 합친 것보다도 더 긴 해안선(33,904 miles /54,563 kilometers)을 가진다.

그 주의 대부분은 반도에 놓여있는데, 북쪽으로는 북극해, 서쪽으로는 베링해, 그리고 남서쪽, 남쪽, 남동쪽으로는 태평양에 접해있다. 북미대륙의 나머지부분으로부터 쭉 멀리 뻗어나가는 이 반도는 그 대륙의 북서쪽 귀퉁이를 형성한다. 세계에서 가장 큰 반도중의 하나인 그것은 동쪽으로는 캐나다와 경계선을 공유하고 있다.

바다들이 그 주 반도의 해안선을 움푹 파이게 해서, 알래스카의 윤곽에다가 가장 두드러진 몇 몇 특징들을 제공하는 다른 반도들을 형성한다. 이들 중 가장 눈에 띄는 것은 알래스카반도이다. 그 반도 자체의 길이가 550 miles (885 kilometers) 이며, 그 다음에 화려한 체인모양으로 늘어선 섬들이 아시아를 향해 뻗어간다, 알래스카의 반도들 중 또 하나는 Seward 반도인데, 그 안에 동부지역의 작은 여러 개의 주들이 삼켜질 수 있을 정도로 크다. Seward 보다는 덜 큰 Kenai 반도는 Maryland 주의 크기와 비슷하다.

알래스카의 바다유산의 일부인 많은 섬들은 그 주의 가장자리를 따라서 놓여있다. 알래스카의 남동부의 대부분은 Baranof, Kuiu, 그리고 Admiralty 등을 포함하는 1,100개의 섬으로 이루어진 알렉산더 군도(Alexander Archipelago) 로 구성되어있다. 그 해안선을 계속 따라 Prince William 해협이 있다. 베링해를 둘러싸는 긴 반원형으로 알류샨열도(Aleutian Islands)가 그 차갑고 바람에 노출된 긴 선을 이루고 있다. 알류샨열도 안에는 Fox 군도, Near 군도, 그리고 Rat 군도와 같은 모든 군도들이 포함되어있다.

Test  6

Questions 1-10

지구상의 모든 육지면적의 2,5배 정도로 큰 해저(바다의 바닥)는 오늘날까지도 탐험되지 않았고 지도로 그려지지 않은 거대한 미개척지이다. 1세기 전까지만 해도, 깊은 해저는 평균 깊이가 3,600 미터나 되는 물밑에 숨겨져서 완전히 접근 불가능했었다. 빛이 완전히 차단되고, 지표상에서보다 수백 배 강한 압력을 받고있는 깊은 해저는 인간에게는 하나의 적대적인 환경이었고, 어떤 면에서 보면, 우주의 저 빈 공간처럼 그렇게 금지되고 먼 곳이었다.

100년 이상동안 연구가들이 깊은 바다의 바위와 퇴적물들의 샘플을 채취해왔지만, 최초의 세부적인 세계적 탐사는 1968년 국립과학재단의 심해 발굴프로젝트(DSDP)의 착수와 함께 비로소 실제적으로 시작한 것이다. 근해 석유와 가스 산업을 위해 원래 개발되었던 기술들을 사용하면서, 심해 발굴프로젝트(DSDP)의 시추선인 Glomar Challenger 호가 대양의 위에 떠서 움직이지 않고 매우 깊은 바다속을 시추할 수 있었으며, 해저로부터 바위와 퇴적물들의 샘풀을 추출했다.

Glomar Challenger 호는 1983년 11월에 끝난 15년간에 걸친 연구프로그램에서 96회의 항해를 완성했다. 이 시기동안에 그 배는 600,000 km 의 항해를 기록하며, 전세계에 걸쳐 624군데의 채취장소에서 거의 20,000 점의 해저 퇴적물과 바위의 핵심 샘플을 채취하였다. Glomar Challenger 호의 핵심 샘플들은 지질학자들로 하여금 지구가 수억년 전에 어떤 모습이었는지를 재구성할 수 있게 해주었고 앞으로 수백만년 후에 어떤 모습일 것인가를 계산할 수 있게 해주었다. 오늘날, 주로 Glomar Challenger 호의 항해동안에 수집된 증거에 힘입어서, 거의 모든 지구과학자들은, 지구를 형성하는 많은 지질학적인 과정들을 설명하는 지판구조지질학과 대륙이동설의 이론에 동의한다.

Glomar Challenger 호에 의해서 추출된 퇴적물의 핵들은 지구의 과거 기후를 이해하는데 대단히 중요한 정보를 알려주었다. 심해 퇴적물들은, 두 가지 활동 즉, (1)기계적 침식작용과 (2)과거 기후에 관한 육상을 근거로 한 증거들을 급격히 파손시키는 화학적 생물학적 활동 등으로부터 대개 고립되어있기 때문에, 수억년 전까지 거슬러 올라가는 하나의 기후에 관한 기록을 제공한다. 이 기록은 이미 과거 기후변화의 양상과 원인들에 관한 통찰 □ 미래의 기후를 예견하기 위해 사용될 수도 있는 정보를 제공했다.

Questions 11-22

2 차대전후 20년 동안의 캐나다에 관한 어떤 이해이든지 그 기초가 되는 것은 그 나라의 인상적인 인구증가이다. 1945년 캐나다 인구 매 3명에 대하여 1966년에는 5명 이상이 되었다. 1966년 9월에 캐나다의 인구는 2천만 명을 넘어섰다. 이 급격한 증가의 대부분은 자연증가로부터 온 것이었다. 1930년대의 공황과 전쟁이 혼인률을 저지했었는데 1945년 이후에 이것을 만회하는 과정이 시작했다. 1950년대의 10년 내내 베이비붐이 지속되었는데, 1951 년부터 1956년까지 5년 동안 거의 15%의 인구증가를 가져왔다. 이러한 증가율은 캐나다의 역사상 단 한번. 즉 초원들이 사람들에 의해서 정착되고있었던 1911년 이전의 10년 동안이라는 그 기간에만 능가된 적이 있었다. 의심할 여지없이, 1950년대의 좋은 경제 상태가 인구에 있어서의 성장을 지지했지만, 또한 그 확장은 조혼의 경향과 가족의 평균사이즈의 증가에서도 기인하는 것이었다. 1957년에 캐나다의 출생률은 1,000명 당 28에 달했는데 이것은 세계에서 가장 높은 비율중의 하나였다.

1957년의 절정 이후로, 캐나다의 출생률은 감소하기 시작했다. 그것은 계속 떨어져서 1966년에는 25년만에 최하의 수준에 머물렀다. 부분적으로 이 쇠퇴는 공황과 전쟁동안의 낮았던 출생률을 반영하는 것이었으나, 그것은 또한 캐나다 사회의 변화에서 기인하기도 했다. 젊은이들이 학교에 더 오래 머물렀고, 더 많은 여자들이 직업을 가졌고, 젊은 부부들이 가족을 시작하기 전에(아이를 가지기 전에) 자동차와 집을 구입했고, 상승하는 생활수준이 가족의 사이즈를 줄였다. 캐나다는 다시 한번, 산업혁명시기 이래로 서구세계전역에 걸쳐서 발생했었던 소가족을 향한 추세에 발맞추어 가는 듯이 보였다.

1966년까지 캐나다의 인구성장률은 저하되고있었지만(1960년대 전반기의 성장률은 단지 9% 이었음), 또 하나의 거대한 인구 파도가 지평선너머로부터 밀려오고 있었다. 그것은 1957년 이전의 높은 출생률 시기에 태어난 사람들의 아이들로 구성될 그 인구였던 것이다.

Questions 23-31

유기적으로 재배된 음식이 가장 좋은 선택인가? 종래의 방식으로 재배되고 유통되는 음식상품들에 비교해서, 그러한 음식(유기농산물)을 옹호해서 제기되는 장점들이 지금 논란이 되고 있다. 유기 음식 □ 그것의 의미가 대단히 다양한 용어 □ 의 옹호자들은 그런 상품들이 다른 것들보다 더 안전하고 더 영양이 있다고 공언한다.

전형적인 북미 음식의 안전성과 영양적 가치에 관한 소비자들의 증가하는 관심은 환영할만한 발전이다. 그러나 이 관심중의 많은 부분이. 그 음식(전형적인 음식)은 안전하지 않고 영양상의 필요를 충족시키는데 부적합하다는 일방적으로 밀어붙이는 주장에 의해서 불붙여진 것이다. 이런 주장의 대부분이 과학적인 증거에 의해서 지지되지 않지만, 그런 주장들을 제기하는 인쇄매체들의 우세함이 일반 대중들이 사실과 가상을 구별하는 것을 힘들게 만들고 있다. 그 결과로서,  유기적으로 재배된 음식으로만 완전히 구성된 식사를 먹는 것이 병을 예방하고 치료한다거나 건강에 다른 여러 혜택을 제공한다는 주장들이 널리 공표되어왔으며 민속의 근거를 형성하고 있다.

거의 매일같이 대중들은 □불로장생□ 음식, 새로운 비타민, 그리고 다른 경이식품 등의 공세를 접하고있다. 자연적인 비타민이 인공적으로 합성된 비타민보다 우수하다든가 수정란은 무수정란보다 영양학적으로 더 우수하다든가, 농약처리를 하지 않은 곡식이 훈증소독을 곡식보다 더 좋다는 등과 같은 수많은 입증되지 않은 보고들이 있다.

유기적으로 재배된 대부분의 음식상품들이 공통적으로 가진다고 보여지는 한가지는 그들이 종래의 방식으로 재배된 음식들보다 더 비싸다는 것이다. 그러나 많은 경우에 있어서, 소비자들이 유기식품이 건강을 유지시켜주고 종래의 방식으로 재배된 식품보다 더 좋은 영양학적인 품질을 제공한다고 믿는다면 그것은 잘못된 생각이다. 그러므로, 소비자들이, 특히 적은 수입을 가지는 소비자들이 일반적인 음식공급품을 불신하고 비싼 유기음식을 대신 구입한다면, 진정한 우려의 근거가 있는 것이다.

Questions 32-41

고대그리스에서의 드라마의 시초에 관해서는 여러 이론들이 있다. 오늘날 가장 널리 인정받는 드라마가 종교의식으로부터 발전했다는 추정에 근거를 둔다. 이 견해에 관한 주장은 다음과 같다. 처음에 인간은, 세상의 자연적인 힘, 계절의 변화조차도 예측불가능이라고 간주했고, 그들은 여러 가지 수단을 통해서, 이 알려지지 않은 그리고 공포의 대상이 되는 힘들을 컨트롤하기를 추구했다. 요구되는 결과를 가져오는 것으로 보여지는 방법들은 그 다음에 계속 유지되고 반복되었으며, 마침내 그들은 고정적인 종교의식으로 고착되었다. 결국, 그 종교의식의 신비를 설명하거나 베일로 가려지게 하는 이야기들이 생겨났다. 시간이 흐름에 따라 어떤 의식들은 버려졌는데, 그러나, 나중에 신화라고 불려진 그 이야기들은 지속되어서 미술과 드라마를 위한 자료를 제공하였다.

드라마가 종교의식으로부터 발전했다고 믿는 사람들은 역시 또한, 음악, 춤, 가면, 의상들이 항상 사용되었기 때문에 그 종교의식들이 연극의 씨앗을 포함하고있었다고 주장한다. 더욱이, 의식거행(performance)을 위해서 적당한 장소가 제공되어야만했었고 전체 마을사람들이 모두 참여할 수 없을 때는 의식거행장소(acting area)와 구경장소(auditorium) 사이에 확연한 구분이 생겼다. 또한, 의식거행자들이 있었는데, 의식거행에 있어서의 실수를 피하는 것에 대단한 중요성이 부여되었으므로 종교지도자가 그 임무를 떠맡았다. 가면과 의상을 입고서, 그들은 다른 사람이나 동물이나 초자연적인 존재를 구현하여, 요구되는 효과 □ 사냥이나 전쟁에서의 승리, 비가 내리는 것, 태양이 다시 떠오르는 것 등 □를 흉내내었다, 마치 (연극)배우가 할 수 있는 것처럼.

또 다른 이론은 연극의 기원을 □이야기 전하기□에 관한 인간의 관심으로부터 추적한다. 이 견해에 따르면, 사냥, 전쟁, 또는 다른 위업들에 관한 우화들이, 처음에는 해설자의 구현, 연기, 대화 등의 사용을 통해서 그 다음에는 각각의 역할을 다른 사람들이 떠맡음으로써, 점점 정교하게 수정되었다. 밀접하게 관련 있는 또 하나의 이론은 연극의 기원을, 주로 리드미컬하고 체조와 같은 그런 춤들, 또는 동물의 움직임과 소리의 모방인 그런 춤들에 두고 있다.

Questions 42-50

남북전쟁이 끝났을 때, 대단히 힘든 일이 남부나 북부나 모두의 모든 미국인들에게 직면하고있었다. 양측으로부터 약 150만의 군인들이 군소집이 해제되어, 시민생활로 재 적응하고, 파탄에 빠진 경제에 의해서 재 흡수되어야만했다. 시민정부 역시 평화시의 토대로 돌아가야만 했고, 군대로부터의 간섭이 중지되어야했다.

남부의 절박한 곤경이, 비록 규모는 더 작지만 북부에서도 역시 재건설이 행해져야한다는 사실을 가려버렸다.

산업체들은 평화시의 상태로 조정되어야했고, 공장들은 민간의 요구에 맞춰서 도구가 재 시설되어야했다.

금융적인 문제들은 남 북 둘 다에서 커 보였다. 국가 채무는 전쟁이 시작되었던 해인 1861년에 부담이 적었던 6천5백만 달러에서, 전쟁이 끝난 해인 1865년에 거의 30억 달러로 치솟았다. 이것은 그 당시로 봐서는 엄청난 액수였으나 신중한 정부라면 결국 갚을 수 있는 액수였다. 동시에, 전쟁 세금이 덜 부담이 되는 수준으로 삭감되어야했다.

침공하는 군대에 의해 야기된 물질적인 파괴, 주로 남부 주들과 접경 주들에서의 파괴가 복구되어야만했다. 이 거대한 작업이 결국 완성되었지만, 절망감을 줄 정도로 그렇게 느리게 완성되었다.

다른 중요한 질문들이 대답을 요구하고 있었다. 노예제도에서 해방된 400만 흑인들의 미래는 어떻게 될 것인가 ? 어떠한 근거로 남부의 주들이 북부연합에 다시 병합될 것인가 ? 남부의 지도자들, 그들 모두가 반역의 죄를 받아야만 하는 남부의 지도자들은 어떻게 될 것인가 ?  이 지도자들 중의하나의 남부연합의 대통령 Jefferson Davis 는 모욕적인 북부의 노래 □Jeff Davis를 사과나무에 교수형시켜라 (Hang Jeff Davis from a Sour Apple Tree)," 의 대상이었고 어린아이들조차도 그 노래를 불렀다. Davis 는 그의 2년 형기의 초기에 일시적으로 그의 감옥에 투옥되었다. 그러나 그와  남부의 다른 지도자들은 결국 석방되었는데, 남부연합의 한 주였던 버지니아 출신의 배심원들이 그를 유죄로 평결하지 않을 가능성이 있었다는 것도 그 이유중의 일부였다. 1868년에 Johnson 대통령에 의해서 모든 지도자들이 사면되었는데, 가능한 한 적은 고통으로 재건 노력이 진행되도록 돕기 위해서였다.

Test 7

Questions 1-10

과학에서 하나의 이론이란 것은 서로 관련되어있는 관찰된 사건들의 합리적인 설명이다. 이론은 흔히 과학자로 하여금 관찰된 어떤 사건이 발생될 수 있는 방식을 시각적으로 연상시킬 수 있도록 도와주는 가상적 모델을 포함한다. 이것의 좋은 예가 운동분자이론에서 발견되는데, 이 이론에서는 기체가 지속적으로 움직이고있는 많은 작은 입자들로 구성되어있는 것으로 그려진다.

하나의 유용한 이론은, 과거의 관찰을 설명할 뿐만 아니라, 아직 관찰되지 않은 사건들을 예측할 수 있도록 도와준다. 한 이론이 발표되고 나면, 과학자들은 그 이론을 테스트하기 위한 실험을 계획한다. 만약에 관찰들이 과학자들의 예측을 확인해준다면 그 이론은 지지를 받는다. 만약에 관찰들이 과학자들의 예측을 확인해주지 못하면, 과학자들은 더욱 연구해야한다. 실험상에 실수가 있을 수도 있고, 아니면 그 이론이 수정되거나 거절되어야한다. 과학은 정보를 수집하고 실험을 행하는 것뿐만 아니라, 상상력과 창조적 사고를 포함한다. 어떤 사실들 자체가 과학은 아니다. 수학자 Jules Henri Poincare 가 말했듯이, □집이 벽돌로 지어지듯이 과학은 사실들로 구성된다, 그러나 벽돌더미를 집이라고 부를 수 없는 것과 마찬가지로 한 더미의 사실들이 과학이라고 불릴 수 없는 것이다.□

대부분의 과학자들은, 어떤 특정한 문제에 관해서 다른 과학자들이 이미 배운 것을 알아냄으로써 탐구를 시작한다. 이미 알려진 사실들이 수집된 후에 과학자는 대단한 상상력을 요하는 탐구의 그 부분에 이르게된다. 그 문제에 대한 가능한 해결책들이 공식화된다. 이 가능한 해결책들은 가설이라고 불린다.

어떤 의미에서 보면, 어떤 가설이든지 미지의 세계로의 도약인 것이다. 그것은 과학자의 사고를 알려진 사실보다 더 멀리까지 확장시켜준다. 가설을 테스트하기 위해서 그 과학자는 실험을 계획하고, 계산을 행하고, 관찰을 한다. 왜냐하면, 가설이 없다면 더 이상의 탐구는 목적과 방향을 상실하기 때문이다. 가설이 사실로 확인되면 그것은 이론으로 병합된다.

Questions 11-21

19세기 중엽까지, □아이스박스□란 용어가 미국어에 들어갔다. 그러나 아직도 얼음은 미국에서 일반시민들의 식사에 영향을 끼치는 겨우 시작단계였다. 얼음 판매는 도시의 발전과 함께 성장했다. 얼음은 호텔과 여인숙에서 사용되었고, 신선한 고기, 신선한 생선 그리고 버터를 취급하는 미래를 내다보는 상인들에 의해서 사용되었다. 남북전쟁(1861-1865) 이후에 얼음이 화물차를 냉장시키기 위해 사용되면서 그것은 가정에서도 사용되기 시작했다. 1880년 이전에도 뉴욕, 필라델피아, 볼티모어에서 판매되는 얼음의 반과 보스턴과 시카고에서 판매되는 얼음의 1/3은 가정에서 사용되기 위한 것이었다. 이것은, 새로운 가정용 편의품, 즉 현대 냉장고의 전신인 아이스박스가 발명되었기 때문에 가능해진 것이다.

효율적인 아이스박스를 만드는 것은 오늘날 우리가 생각할 수 있는 것처럼 그렇게 쉬운 일이 아니었다. 19세기초에는, 냉장과학에는 필수적인 열물리학에 관한 지식이 초보적인 수준이었다. □가장 좋은 아이스박스는 얼음을 녹지 않게 방지하는 아이스박스이다.□ 라는 생각은 물론 잘못된 것이었다, 왜냐하면 냉장 작용을 행하는 것은 바로 얼음의 용해이기 때문이다. 그러나 얼음을 절약하려는 초창기의 노력이 얼음을 담요에 싸는 일까지도 포함했으며, 그런 행동은 얼음으로 하여금 자신의 일을 하지 못하도록 방해하는 것이었다. 19세기말 근처가 되어서야 비로소 발명가들은 효율적인 아이스박스를 위해 요구되는 단열과 순환의 미세한 균형을 성취했다.

그러나 일찍이 1803년에 재능있는 Maryland 의 농부인 Thomas Moore 는 이미 올바른 길에 접어들었었다. 그는 워싱턴 시의 시외로 20마일 지점에 농장을 가지고있었는데, 워싱턴 시를 위해서는 조지타운이란 마을이 시장의 중심지였다. 그가 버터를 시장에 운반하기 위해서 자기 자신이 고안한 아이스박스를 사용했을 때, 그는 손님들이 그의 경쟁자들의 버터통에서 빨리 녹는 상품들을 외면하고, 말끔한 1파운드짜리 벽돌 모양으로 아직도 신선하고 단단한 그의 버터에 특히 높은 가격을 기꺼이 지불하는 것을 보았다. Moore 가 설명한 바로는, 그의 아이스박스의 한가지 장점은 농부들이 더 이상은, 그들의 농산물을 시원하게 유지하기 위해서 밤에 시장으로 가야할 필요가 없다는 것이었다.

Questions 22-23

자신을 영속시키는 것 이외에, 미국 문예 예술원(American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters)의 유일한 목적은 문학, 음악, 미술에 관한 관심을 육성하고 보조하고 지지하는 것이다. 그 기관은 열광적으로(적극적으로) 자금을 지원해줌으로써 이 일을 한다. 건축, 음악작곡, 연극, 소설, 본격적 시류, 가벼운 운문, 회화, 조각 등 다양한 범주의 창작활동에 있어서 자격있는 예술가들에게 매년 현금 수상이 주어진다. 한번의 수상은 미국의 유망한 작가가 로마 방문하는데 자금을 대주었다. 상업적으로 실패한 훌륭한 소설에조차도 상이 주어지는데, 젊은 John Updike 에게는 the Poorhouse Fair 라는 작품에 대해서, 그리고 더 최근에는 Alice Walker 에게 In Love and Trouble 이라는 작품에 주어졌다.

상과 상품은 일년에 그 총계가 $750,000 에 달하는데, 그러나 그 대부분은 $5,000 - $12,500 의 범위에 걸치며, 이 액수는, 그들의 작품이 일년동안에 그 정도의 돈을 벌 수 없는 많은 젊은 수련예술가들에게는 환영할만한 액수이다. 그 상들의 장점 중 하나는, 많은 상들이 이미 성공한 예술가들에게보다는 오히려 현재 분투 노력하고있는(아직 유명해지지 못한) 예술가들에게 간다는 것이다. 문예 예술원의 회원들은 어떠한 현금 상품에도 자격이 없다. 또 하나의 장점은, 국립 예술진흥기금 (the National Endowment for the Arts)라든가 또는 전세계에 걸쳐서 유사한 기관들과는 달리, 정부의 돈이 포함되지 않는다는 것이다.

수상은 위원회에 의해서 이루어진다. 3개의 부서 □ 문학(회원120), 미술(83), 음악(47) □ 는 각각 자신의 분야를 다루는 위원회를 가진다. 위원회의 회원자격은 매년 순환되어서, 같은 목소리나 의견이 계속 들리지 않는다. 문예 예술원의 모든 상중에서 가장 경제적으로 보답이 큰 상은 <the Mildred and Harold Strauss Livings> 라는 상이다. 뉴욕의 출판사인 Alfred A. Knopf에서 헌신적인 편집자로 일하는 Harold Strauss 와 그의 부인인 Mildred Strauss 는 부유하고 아이가 없었다. 그들은 미국 문예 예술원에 독특한 유산을 남겼는데, 5년 동안 연속적으로 두 명의 뛰어난(그리고 경제적으로 곤란한) 작가들이, (연극, 시, 그리고 그들의 정신을 분산시킬 수 있는 돈버는 일을 하지 않고) 오로지 자신을 산문 문학에만 헌신할 수 있도록 그 정도의 충분한 돈을 받게 되어있었다. 1983년에, 일 년에 $35,000 씩 받는 첫 번째 Strauss Livings 상은 단편소설 작가 Raymond Carver 와 소설가이며 수필가인 Cynthia Ozick에게 돌아갔다. 1988년까지 그 기금은 충분히 잘 성장해서, 두 명의 수상자인 소설가 Diane Johnson 과 소설가 Robert Stone 이 5년간 매년 $50,000 씩 받게되었다.

Questions 32-42

고고학적인 기록들 □ 손을 사용하는 것을 포함하여, 여러 활동에 참여한 인간의 회화, 그림, 조각 등 □ 은 인간이 5,000년이상동안 주로 □오른손잡이□이었다는 것을 나타내준다. 예를 들면 고대 이집트의 미술작품에서 약 90 %이상의 예에서 오른손이 주도적인 것(손)으로서 묘사된다. 도구들 위에 있는 깨진 모양이나 마모된 모양이 고대인들의 대다수가 오른손잡이였다는 것을 보여준다.

약 2만 7천년 된 크로마뇽(Cro-Magnon) 동굴 벽화는, 한 손을 벽에다 대고 다른 손으로 색을 칠함으로써 만들어진, 사람 손의 윤곽을 보여준다. 오늘날의 아이들도 크레용으로 종이 위에 그들 손의 비슷한 윤곽선을 그린다. 거의 예외 없이 크로마뇽인들의 왼손이 나타나있는데 이것은 그 그림들이 거의 오른손잡이에 의해서 그려졌다는 것을 의미한다.

인류학적인 증거들은 초기 인간조상들에 있어서의 손의 사용의 기록을 최소한 140만 년전까지 거슬러 올라가게한다. 하나의 중요한 일련의 증거는 도구만들기에 사용되었던 돌 조각들의 쪼개진 양상으로부터 온다. 시계방향의 움직임(오른손잡이인 도구제작자를 의미하는)으로 쪼개진 도구들은 반시계방향의 움직임(왼손잡이인 도구제작자를 의미하는)으로 쪼개진 도구들로부터 구분될 수 있다.

인간의 화석이빨에서 발견되는 긁힌 자국조차도 단서를 제공한다. 고대인간들은, 현재의 이뉴트(Inuit/에스키모)족들이 하는 것처럼, 고기를 이빨사이에 물고 돌 칼로 그것을 긴 조작모양으로 잘랐다고 여겨지는데, 때때로 칼이 미끌어져서 사용자의 이빨에 긁힌 자국을 남겼다. (오른손잡이에 의해) 왼쪽으로부터 오른쪽 방향으로 움직임에 의해 만들어진 긁힌 자국이 반대 방향의 움직임에 의해 만들어진 긁힌 자국보다 훨씬 흔하다.

그리고 또 다른 증거는 두개골의 형태로부터 나타나는데, 과학자들은 두개골 내부의 오른쪽 부분과 왼쪽부분 사이의 물리적인 차이가 두뇌의 두 부분에 있어서의 미묘한 차이를 나타낸다고 믿는다. 반구들 사이의 변화가, 특정한 행동을 수행하는데 신체의 어느 쪽이 사용되는가에 대응된다. 도구사용에 관한 연구는 물론이고, 그러한 연구들도 오른쪽 또는 왼쪽의 지배적 사용이 현대의 Homo sapiens 에게만 국한되어있는 것이 아니다는 것을 보여준다. Homo erectus 와

Homo habilis 같은 많은 인구의 Neanderthals(네안데르탈인)들도, 우리처럼, 주로 오른손잡이였던 것으로 보인다.

Questions 43-50

식물들은 대단히 다양한 공생관계의 종들에 의한 공격과 감염을 당하기 마련이고, 그래서 그 잠재적인 침략자들을 좌절시키기 위해 고안된 다양한 배열의 메카니즘을 진화시켜왔다. 이들은, 두가지 즉, 미리 형성된 또는 수동적인 메카니즘과, 유발적인 또는 능동적인 메카니즘으로 구분될 수 있다. 수동적 식물방어는 박테리아같은 병원균을 막거나, 또는 자신의 신체조직을 침입자에게 맛없게 만들거나 독성있게 만드는, 그러한 물리적, 화학적 장벽들로써 구성된다. 식물의 외부 표면은 표피(epidermis)와 매끈한 상피(cuticle)로 덮여있으면서 동시에 □모상체(trichome)□라고 알려져 있는 가시와 같은 털을 가지는데, 이것들은 곤충에 의해서 먹히는 것을 방지하거나, 또는 흔히 곤충의 유충에 구멍을 내서 죽이기도 한다. 다른 어떤 모상체(trichome)들은 끈적끈적하고 샘을 가지고 있으며 곤충들을 효율적으로 잡아가두고 꼼짝못하게 한다.

만약 식물의 물리적 장벽이 무너지면, 그 다음에 미리 형성되었던 화학물질들이 침입자를 방해하거나 죽일 수 있으며, 식물의 (세포)조직들은 다양한 배열의 독성이 있는 또는 잠재적으로 독성이 있는, 예를 들면 송진(resins), 탄닌(tannins), 배당체(glycosides), 그리고 알칼로이드(alkaloids) 같은 물질들을 포함하는데, 그들 중의 상당수는 식물을 먹고사는 곤충들에게 대단히 효력있는 방해물질이다. 예를 들어, 감자에 횡행하는 콜로라도 풍뎅이의 성공은, 일반적으로 잠재적인 해충들을 퇴치시키는 알칼로이드에 대한 그 풍뎅이의 높은 내성(견뎌내는 성질)과 상호관련이 있는 것처럼 보인다. 비록 기생충들에게 직접적으로 유독하지는 않지만, 다른 가능한 화학적인 방어는 기생관계를 성립시키는데 있어서 어떤 필수적인 단계를 막아버릴 수도 있다. 예를 들어 식물세포벽의 당단백질(glycoprotein)은 세포벽을 깎아내는 효소들을 무력화시킨다. 이 효소들은 박테리아와 진균류에 의해서 흔히 생산된다.

활동적 식물 방어 메카니즘은, 비록 그 세포학적인 근거와 분자학적인 근거는 다르지만, 척추동물의 면역체계에 견줄만하다. 그러나 둘 다, 침입에 대한 반응으로 시작되기 때문에, 주인이 외부유기체의 존재를 인식할 수 있는 어떤 수단을 가지고 있다는 것을 암시한다. 유발적 식물 방어 반응의 가장 극적인(대단한) 예는 과민반응이다. 과민반응에서는 세포들이 급격한 괴사(죽음)을 겪는다, 즉 그들은 기생충에 의해  침투당한 후에 병들어서 죽어버린다. 그래서 기생충자신도 그 뒤를 이어 성장을 멈추게 되고 침입한 장소의 주위에서 하나 또는 단지 몇 개의 세포로만 국한된다. 과민반응저항의 기초(근거)를 설명하기 위해서 여러 이론이 제시되어왔다.

Test 8

Questions 1-9

지금 미국의 남서부지역인 지역에 또 하나의 초창기 미국원주민 부족은 아나사찌(Anasazi)족이었다. A.D. 800까지 아나사찌 인디언들은 여러층의 프에블로 □ 거대한 돌로 만든 아파트 단지 □ 를 건설하고있었다. 각각이 사실상 돌로 된 하나의 마을이었는데, 이것이, 나중에 스페인사람들이 그것들을 □마을□을 의미하는 단어인 □프에블로□라고 부르게된 이유이다. 이 프에블로는 아나사찌의 우수한 업적 중의 하나를 반영한다. 최소한 12개의 큰 돌로 만든 집이 뉴멕시코 북서쪽에 있는 Chaco Canyon 의 절벽 밑에서 형태를 갖추었다. 그들은 1 미터이상의 두께를 가진 석조 벽과 수 십 가구 또는 심지어는 수백 가구를 수용하는 인접한 아파트들로 건설되었다. 나중에 스페인사람들에 의해서 Pueblo Bonito (아름다운 마을)라고 명명된, 가장 큰 것은 테라스를 갖춘 5층으로 솟아올랐고, 800 개 이상의 방을 가졌으며, 1,000 명 이상의 인구를 수용할 수 있었을 것이다.

거주 공간 이외에도, 각각의 프에블로는 하나 이상의 키바(kiva) □ 돌로 만들어진 면을 가진 지하의 원형으로 된 방 □을 포함했다. 그것들은 거기서 성인들이, 연회를 계획하고 종교의식적인 댄스를 수행하고 마을의 문제를 해결하고 부족의 민속을 젊은 세대에게 전수하기 위해서 만나는 신성한 장소로서 역할을 했다. 어떤 키바들은 거대했다. Pueblo Bonito에서 30개 정도의 키바중에서 두 개는 직경이 20 미터에 달했다. 그들은 의식을 거행하기 위한 물건들을 놓는 공간과, 중앙에 불피우는 구덩이와, 부족의 조상들의 영혼과 의사소통을 위한 바닥에 있는 구멍들을 포함했다.

각각의 프에블로는 놀라운 양의 잘 조직된 노동을 반영했다. 단지 돌과 나무로 된 도구만을 사용하면서, 바퀴나 짐을 끄는 동물들의 도움도 없이, 건축가들은 수 톤의 사암(sandstone)을 계곡의 절벽으로부터 채석하고, 그것을 작은 벽돌모양으로 자르고, 그 벽돌을 건축장소로 운반하고, 진흙 모르타를 가지고서 그것들을 짜 맞췄다. 소나무나 전나무의 지붕 대들보는 수 킬로미터 떨어진 산속 숲의 벌목장으로부터 운반되어야만 했다. 그리고, 프에블로끼리 연결하고 주위의 대지(절벽 위의 평평한 땅/tableland)에 진입할 수 있도록, 건축가들은, 절벽의 경사면을 오르기 위한 돌계단을 가진 공공 도로 시스템을 설계했다. 마침내 도로들은 반경 60 킬로 이내에 있는 80개 이상의 위성 마을까지 뻗어나갔다.

Questions 10-20

우리는 1927년 이전에 만들어진 영화들을 "silent(무성영화)"라고 부르는 데에 익숙하지만, 영화는 결코, 그 단어(silent)의 엄격한 의미에서 볼 때, 무성영화인 적은 없었다.

* (참고) 양보절의 현대 스타일 : Though S + V + (보어, 목적어, 부사) ∼ ....... 의 모양을 현대 미국식에서는

(보어, 목적어, 부사) + Though S + V  ∼ ....... 와 같은 도치의 모양으로도 흔히 사용한다. 따라서, 본문의 Accustomed though we are 는 Though we are accustomed 의 변형형태이다.

아주 시초부터, 음악은 빼 놓을 수 없는 동반자로 간주되었다 ; Lumiere 영화들이 1896년 2월 미국 최초의 대중영화 전시회에서 보여졌을 때, 그들은 당시 인기있는 선율의 피아노 즉석반주를 동반했다. 초기에는 연주되는 음악이 영화와 특별한 관계를 가지지 않았다 ; 어떤 종류의 반주이든지 충분했다. 그러나, 불과 얼마 지나지 않아서, 근엄한 영화에 발랄한 음악의 부조화가 두드러졌고 영화피아니스트들은 그들의 곡을 영화의 분위기에 맞추는데 신경을 쓰기 시작했다.

영화관이 숫자와 중요도에 있어서 증가함에 따라, 어떤 경우에는 바이올리니스트, 그리고 때로는 첼리스트도, 피아니스트에 합세하였고, 큰 영화관에서는 작은 오케스트라가 형성되었다. 여러 해 동안, 각 영화 프로그램에 대한 음악의 선택은 오케스트라의 지휘자나 지도자의 손에 완전히 달려있었고, 흔히 그런 위치를 차지할 수 있는 자격은 기술이나 음악적 취향보다는 악곡들의 큰 저장고(library)의 소유이었다. (음악적으로 뛰어난 사람이 지휘자가 되는 것이 아니고 음악의 악보를 많이 가진 사람이 지휘자가 되었다.) 지휘자는 영화가 상영될 예정인 날의 전날 밤이 되어서야 비로소 그 영화를 보았기 때문에 (그런데 그것도 사실상은 그날 밤에 그 영화를 볼 수 있을 만큼 운이 좋은 경우에만), 음악적인 배치는 일반적으로 대단히 서둘러서 즉석으로 준비되었다.

이 곤란을 해결하는 것을 돕기 위해서 영화 배급회사들은 음악반주를 위한 제안서를 출판하는 관행을 시작했다. 예를 들면, 1909년에 에디슨 회사는 그들의 영화와 함께 □즐거움,□ □슬픔□, □경쾌함□ 등과 같은 무드의 안내를 발행하기 시작했다. 그 지시서들은 더욱 사실화(구체화)되어서, 무드의 지시, 적당한 악곡의 제목들, 어디서 한 곡이 다른 곡으로 이어지는가를 알려주는 정확한 안내 등을 포함하는 음악지시서(musical cue sheet)가 출현하게 되었다.

어떤 영화들은 그들을 위해 특별히 작곡된 음악을 가졌다. 이 초창기의 특별한 악보들 중에서 가장 유명한 것은 1915년에 발표된 D.W. Griffith 의 영화 □한 나라의 탄생Birth of a Nation□을 위해서 작곡되고 정리되었던 그 곡이었다.

Questions 21-30

지구는 3개의 주요 층으로 구성된다 : (1) 밀도가 높고 철이 풍부한 핵, (2) 깊은 곳에서 반쯤 녹은 상태인 규사질 바위로 만들어진 맨틀, (3) 얇고 고체표면인 지각 등이다. 지각은 두 가지 종류가 있는데, 낮고 밀도가 높은 바다의 지각(해양성 지각)과, 지구표면의 40%에서만 발견되는 높고 가벼운 대륙성 지각이다. 지각의 바위들은 매우 다른 (여러 가지) 나이들을 가지고 있다. 어떤 대륙의 바위는 30억 년 이상 되었고 반면에 바다바닥의 바위들은 2억 년 이하의 나이이다. 다 합쳐서 두께로 약 70 내지 100 km 되는, 지각과 맨틀의 단단하고 가벼운 상층부는 현재 약 15개의 단단한 지판으로 구성되는 것으로 보이는데, 그 중의 7 개는 매우 큰 것들이다. 이 지판들은 반쯤 녹아있는 하층부 맨틀의 위로 움직여 다니면서 지구의 모든 주요한 지형적인 특질들을 생성해낸다. 강력한 변형이 발생하는 활동적인 지역은, 좁으면서 상호결합된 지판들의 접촉 경계선부분에 국한된다.

3 가지 주요한 접촉 지역이 있다 : (1) 지판들이 서로로부터 멀리 움직이는 확장 접촉부, (2) 지판들이 서로를 향해 움직이는 수렴 접촉부, (3) 지판들이 서로를 지나 미끄러져가는 변환 접촉부 등이다. 지각의 더 깊은 층들로부터 솟아나는 물질에 의해, 각 지판의 하나이상의 가장자리를 따라서 새로운 해양성 지각이 형성되는데, 예를 들면, 해저 산맥에서 용암의 화산적 분출에 의해서 등이다. 만약 그러한 확장 접촉부에서 두 개의 지판이 대륙을 떠받치고 있다면 균열이 형성되어 그것은 점점 더 넓어지고 바다에 의해서 침수될 것이다. 대서양은, 아메리카 지판과 아프리카-유럽 지판이 반대방향으로 움직임에 따라서, 이런 식으로 형성되었다. 동시에, 수렴하는 지판들의 가장자리(만나는 부분)에서는, 해양성 지각이 맨틀 속으로 빨려 들어가고 바다의 밑으로 녹아버림으로써 재 흡수되고 있다. 대륙을 떠받치고 있는 두 개의 지판이 충돌할 때, 대륙의 덩어리들은, 속으로(밑으로) 끌려 들어가기에는 너무 가벼워서, 계속 위에 떠있게 되고, 따라서   결합하여, 지판들의 가장자리의 길이를 따라서 하나의 산맥을 형성한다.

Questions 31-39

가속화되는 종들과 서식지의 상실에 관한 염려와 함께 해온 것은, 지구의 건강과 인간의 복지를 위한 생물학적 다양성 □ 즉, 어떤 특정한 생태계에서 종들의 숫자 □ 의 중요성에 관한 증가하는 인식이었다.

□ 참고 : 본문은 원래 정상적인 어순에서는 다음과 같은 모양인데,

* A growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity, the number of species in a particular ecosystem, to the health of the Earth and human well-being = 주어 (지구의 건강과 인간의 복지를 위한 생물학적 다양성 □ 즉, 어떤 특정한 생태계에서 종들의 숫자 □ 의 중요성에 관한 증가하는 인식)

* has been = 동사(여태까지 --이었다)

* coincident = 보어 (-와 동시에 발생하는)

* with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats = 부사 (가속화되는 종들과 서식지의 상실에 관한 염려와 함께)

위의 문장을, 자동사의 도치법을 이용하여 < 보어 + 부사 + 자동사 + 주어 > 의 순서를 채택한 도치법 제 4형의 응용으로서 다음과 같은 순서로 나열한 것이다.

* Coincident  = (보어)

* with concerns about the accelerating loss of species and habitats = (부사)

* has been = (자동사)

* a growing appreciation of the importance of biological diversity, the number of species in a particular ecosystem, to the health of the Earth and human well-being = (주어) 컴마의 뒤에 있는 말 전체가 컴마의 앞에 있는 biological diversity 와 동격이다.

육상의 유기체, 특히 열대우림서식지에 관련된 대단히 풍부한 생명체들의 다양성에 관해서는 많은 글이 쓰여졌다. 그러나, 산호초 시스템이 생명체의 풍요로움이란 관점에서 볼 때는 열대우림과 비유할 수 있는데도, 바다 생물의 다양성에 관해서는 비교적 별로 언급된 것이 없다.

만약 지구를 탐험하고있는 외계인이 있다면 그는, 그 행성(지구)의 주도적이고 가장 뚜렷한 특징인 바다에 대해서 가장 우선권을 부여할 것이다. 인간은 육지에 대한 편애를 가지고 있어서 그것이 때때로 지구의 문제를 진정으로 연구하는데 방해가 된다. 멀리서 보면, 땅 덩어리가 지구 표면의 단지 1/3 만을 점유하고있다는 것을 깨닫는 것은 쉽다. 지구표면의 2/3가 물이라는 사실과 해양생물은 바다의 여러 층(여러 깊이)에서 살고있다는 사실을 가정하면, 바다의 3차원적인 총 생활공간은 육지의 그것보다 100배정도 큰 것이며, 지구의 모든 생물의 90%를 포함하고 있다, 비록 바다는 뚜렷이 구분되는 종의 숫자는 더 적게 가지고 있지만. (바다는 육지에 비해서 종들의 종류는 적지만 생물의 총 숫자는 훨씬 많다.)   * 참고 - 11 줄의 given(-라고 가정한다면) : 그 뒤에 명사나 명사절(that절 포함)을 목적어로 가지는 특수한 전치사이다.

그 종들(곤충의 여러 종들)의 집단을 구성하고있는 곤충들의 그 엄청난 숫자를 고려할 때, 알려져있는 생물의 반이 세상의 열대우림에 거주할 것이라고 추측된다는 사실은 놀라운 것이 아니다. 어떤 과학자는 열대우림의 어떤 단지 하나의 나무에서 여러 많은 종의 개미를 발견하였다. 각 종이 다른 종과는 다르지만, 그들의 유전적인 구성이 그들을 곤충이 되도록 그리고  750,000 종의 곤충들과 비슷한 특징들을 공유하도록 한정짓고있는 것이다. 만약에 (생물을 구분하는데 있어서) 종들 사이에 분류하는 것보다는, 문(phyla) 이나 강(class)과 같은 기본적이고 더 광범위한 범주(분류단위)가 더욱 강조된다면, 생물의 가장 큰 다양성은 물어볼 여지도 없이 당연히 바다이다. 거의 모든 형태의 주요 동식물이 거기에(바다에) 약간씩의 대표단을 가지고 있다.

바다 생물의 다양성과 풍부함을 완전히 인식하기 위해서는, 작게 생각해보는 것이 도움이 된다. 한 스푼의 바닷물은 거의 100내지 10만개의 박테리아 세포, 그리고 스폰지와 산호의 유충으로부터 불가사리와 조개 등의 유충, 기타 훨씬 더 많은 생물의 유충 등을 포함하여, 다양한 미세 동식물을 담고있다.

* 참고 : on the order of - : (숙어) 거의 -만큼의

Questions 40-50

미국에서 지질학자들이 the Basin and Range Province 라고 부르는 것(지역)은, 그것의 북쪽 부분에서는 □대분지(the Great Basin□라고 알려져 있는 지질학적인 지역과 대략 일치한다. 대분지(the Great Basin)는 서쪽으로는 Sierra Nevada 산맥에 의해서 그리고 동쪽으로는 로키산맥에 의해서 가두어져있다: 그것은 바다로 나가는 출구가 없다. 대분지(the Great Basin)에 흔히 나타나는 바람은 서쪽으로부터 온다. 태평양으로부터 오는 덥고 습한 공기가, 그것이 Sierra Nevada 산맥을 건너올 때 위쪽으로 밀려 올라간다. 더 높은 고도에서 그것은 식고, 그것이 가지고 있는 습기는 산맥의 서쪽 기슭에서 비나 눈으로서 떨어진다. 그 분지에 도착하는 공기는 습기가 다 빠져서 건조하게 된 공기이다. 대개 겨울 몇 달 동안에, 비록 적지만 비나 눈으로서 거기에 떨어지는 모든 물은, 넓고 평평한 사막의 바닥에서 증발해버린다. 그러므로 그곳은 그 안에서 유기체들이 생존을 위해 투쟁하는 환경이다. 드물게 나타나는 수로를 따라서 사시나무(cottonwood)와 버드나무(willow)가 드문 존재(생존)를 근근히 유지해 나간다. 고지대 지역에서는 삐뇽소나무(pi□on pine)와 노간주나무(juniper)가 그들 자신의 생존유지를 위해 투쟁한다.

그러나 대분지(the Great Basin)가 항상 그렇게 건조했던 것은 아니다. 그곳의 많은 건조하고 사방이 막힌 웅덩이들이 과거에는 물로 가득 차있었다. Owens Valley, Panamint Valley, 그리고 Death Valley 는 전에 하나의 상호 연결된 호수 군이었다. 대분지(the Great Basin)의 고대 호수들 중에서 가장 큰 두 개는 Lake Lahontan 과 Lake Bonneville 이었다. Great Salt Lake 는 후자로부터 유일하게 남은 부분이고, Pyramid Lake 는 전자의 바닷물(소금물)로 된 마지막 남은 부분이다.

지난 마지막 수만년 이내에 이 지역에 물이 축적되어있었던 여러 번의 기간이 있었던 것으로 보인다. 호수 수면의 상승과 하강은 의심할 여지없이, 그 기간동안 북미대륙 북쪽부분의 대부분을 덮고있던 거대한 얼음 덩어리들의 진출과 후퇴에 관련이 되어있었다. 빙하시대 동안의 기후의 변화는, 대분지(the Great Basin)의 사막을 포함하여 전세계적으로 중위도 지역의 사막에 때때로 더 차고 습한 날씨를 가져왔다. 대분지(the Great Basin)에 있는 서로 연결되어있지 않은 많은 계곡들이 이 습기(물)를 수용하는 준비된 그릇을 제공했던 것이다.

Test 9

Questions 1-12

1500년대 이전에 북미의 서쪽 평원은 농부들에 의해서 지배되었다. □Mandan□ 이라는 한 부족이 미조리 강 상류지역, 주로 현재의 North Dakota 지역에 살았다. 그들은 함께 가까이 지어진 집들로 된 큰 마을을 가지고있었다. 그 밀집된 배치가 Mandan 사람들로 하여금 남들의 공격으로부터 더 쉽게 자신을 보호할 수 있게 해주었는데, 그 남들이란 것은 이 대단히 능력있는 농부들이 한 해에서 다음해에 걸쳐 저장해놓은 음식의 일부를 얻기를 추구할 수도 있는(음식을 빼앗으려고 할는지도 모르는) 다른 부족사람들을 말한다.

농지에서는 여자들이 주된 책임을 맡았다. 그들은 요구되는 결과를 산출하기 위해서 대단한 기술을 발휘해야만 했는데, 왜냐하면 그들이 북쪽으로 위치한 것은 재배할 수 있는 기간이 빨리 지나간다는 것을 의미했기 때문이다. 흔히 겨울은 오래 머물렀고, 심한 서리에 의해서 가을이 예고될 수 있었다. 게다가 또 덤으로, 봄과 여름에는 가뭄, 더위, 우박, 메뚜기, 그리고 다른 좌절의 요소(재해)들이 그 농부들을 기다리고있을 수도 있었다.

그런 조건하에서 Mandan 의 여자들은 악천후를 견딜 능력이 있는 옥수수를 재배해야만 했다. 땅을 청소하고, 농지로부터 그루터기를 치우기 위해 불을 사용하고, 그 다음에 곡물을 심으면서, 그들은 봄에 그렇게 하는 것(옥수수를 재배하는 것)이 가능해 보이자마자 최대한 일찍이 (농사를) 시작했다. 이 시점부터 첫 번째 녹색의 옥수수가 추수될 때까지 그 농작물은 노동과 경계를 요구했다.

추수는 두 단계로 진행되었다. 8월에 Mandan 사람들은 그것이 완전히 성숙해지기전에 더 적은 양의 곡물을 거둬들였다. 이 녹색의 옥수수는 끓여지고, 건조되고, 껍질이 벗겨졌는데, 그 옥수수들 중의 일부는 즉시 사용할 수 있도록

예정되었고 나머지는 동물가죽 백에 보관되었다. 나중에 가을이 되어 그들은 나머지 옥수수를 수확했다. 그들은 추수된 것 중에서 가장 좋은 것들은 씨로서 또는 교역을 위해서 보관하고, 나머지는 즉시 먹거나 차후의 사용을 위해서 지하 저장고에 보관되었다. 여분의 음식을 적당하게 저장함으로써 Mandan 사람들은 농사 실패와 그에 따르는 기아의 재난에 대비해서 자신들을 보호했다.

여자들은 6월 1일 경에 또 하나의 필수 식품인 호박을 심었고, 녹색 옥수수의 추수시기 무렵에 그것을 수확했다. 그것을 딴 후에, 건조시키고, 저장하기 전에 조각들을 줄로 꿰었다. 또다시, 그들은 그 해의 농작물 중에서 가장 좋은 것들로부터 씨를 준비했다. Mandan 사람들은 역시 해바라기와 담배도 재배했는데, 후자는 노인들의 특별한 임무였다.

Questions 13-21

수소와 헬륨 이외의 원소들은 아주 적은 양으로 존재하기 때문에, 우주는 무게로 다져서 대략 25% 보다 약간 넘는 헬륨과 대략 75% 에 약간 못 미치는 수소로 되어있다고 말하는 것이 정확하다.

천문학자들은 우리의 은하계 전체에 걸쳐서는 물론이고 다른 은하계에서도 헬륨의 풍부함을 측정하였다. 헬륨은 오래된 별들에서, 비교적 젊은 별들에서, 별들 사이의 가스에서, 그리고 준성(quasar)라고 알려져 있는 먼 물체들에서 발견되었다. 헬륨의 핵들은 지구에 떨어지는 우주선(cosmic rays)의 구성 성분이라는 것이 밝혀졌다. (우주선 cosmic "rays"은 실제로는 복사선의 한 형태는 아니다 ; 그들은 수많은 다른 종류의 빨리 움직이는 입자들로 구성되어있다.) 헬륨이 어디서 발견되는가는 별다른 차이가 없는 것 같다. 그것의 비교적 풍부함은 결코 별로 변화가 없는 것 같다. 어떤 곳에서는 그것이 약간 더 많이 있고 어떤 곳에서는 약간 더 적게 있지만, 수소 핵에 대한 헬륨의 비율은 항상 같은 상태로 존재한다.

헬륨은 별에서 생성된다. 사실상, 수소를 헬륨으로 변환시키는 핵반응은 별들이 생성하는 대부분의 에너지에 대해서 책임이 있다. (수소를 헬륨으로 변환시키는 핵반응은 별들이 생성하는 대부분의 에너지를 차지한다.) 그러나 이런 식으로 생성될 수 있었던 헬륨의 양이 계산되었는데, 그것은 불과 몇 퍼센트에 지나지 않았다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 우주는 이 수치가 상당히 더 커질 수 있을 정도로 그렇게 충분히 오랫동안 존재하지 않았다. 결론적으로, 만약 우주가 지금 대략 25% 보다 약간 넘는 헬륨이라면, 그러면 그것은 분명히 태초와 가까운 어느 시기에 대략 25% 의 헬륨이었음이 틀림없다.

그러나 우주가 탄생한지 일분이내에는 헬륨이 존재했을 수가 없다. 이 시간 이전에 온도는 너무 높고 물질의 입자들은 너무나도 빨리 움직이고있었다는 것을 계산이 보여준다. 헬륨이 존재할 수 있었던 것은 오로지 그 일분이라는 시점 이후였다. 이 시점까지, 우주는 중성자와 양성자가 함께 결합할 수 있을 정도로 충분히 식었었다. 그러나 그 헬륨의 형성을 이끌어낸 핵반응은 단지 비교적 짧은 시간동안만 지속되었다. 우주의 나이가 몇 분 정도 되었을 때, 헬륨의 생성은 이미 효과적으로 멈추었다.

Questions 22-31

미국의 식민지 시대에, 퀼트의 제작자들이 남겨놓고 떠나온 그 나라들의 퀼트와 닮은 장식적인 퀼트를 가지고서 사람들은 일반적으로 그들의 침대를 덮었다. 부유하고 사회적으로 두드러진 정착자들은 영국스타일의 퀼트를 만들었는데, 그것은 작은 여러 조각들을 모아서 꿰매기보다는, 오히려 같은 색깔과 재질의 긴 길이의 천으로부터 잘라낸 것이었다. 그들은 이것을 1775년에 독립전쟁이 발발할 때까지 만들었는데, 그 때(독립전쟁의 발발직후)는 영국식으로 된 모든 것들이 외면당했다.

초창기 동안에 이 부유한 정착자들에 의해 만들어졌던, 전체가 하나의 조각으로 되어있는 큰 퀼트들 가운데는 현재 린제이-울제이(linsey-woolsey)라고 불리는 것들이 있다. 이 용어는 원래 일반적으로, 겨울에 입는 두꺼운 의류나 퀼트방식의 (여자용)페티코트에 사용되는, 양모와 린넨으로 만들어진 직물에 적용되었었다. 그 이름에도 불구하고, 린제이-울제이(linsey-woolsey) 침대 커버는 별로 린넨을 함유하지 않았다. 오히려, 그들은 바깥 층이 양모로 되어있거나 또는 겉이 맨질맨질한(glazed) 우스티드(소모사) 양모직물로 되어있었는데, 이 직물은 긴 양모섬유로부터 뽑아낸 매끄럽고 압축된 양모 실로 구성되어있었고, 그 실들은 검푸른색, 녹색, 또는 갈색으로 염색되어있었다, 그리고 한편, 자연색이거나 노란 색조를 띈, 그리고 좀더 거친 양모의 천으로 구성되어있는 안쪽 층을 가지고있었다. 속감은, 청소해서 잘 분리된 부드러운 양모 층이었다, 그리고 그 세 개의 층이, 가정에서 만든 린넨 실로 행해진 장식적인 박음질(stitching)로써 함께 접착이 되었다. 나중에는 이 목적을 위해서 면으로 된 실이 사용되었다. 박음질의 디자인은 흔히 단순한 것이었는데, 고리처럼 서로 연결되는 여러 개의 원형이라든가, 다이아몬드 모양을 보여주는 교차되는 대각선들 등이었다. 이런 종류의 무거운 따뜻한 퀼트로 만든 침대커버는 아주 커버 그것이 방바닥까지 닿았다. 그 퀼트가 키 크고 네 개의 기둥을 가진 1700년대의 침대에 사방으로 넉넉하게 잘 맞도록 하기 위해서, 이불의 바깥쪽에서 네 귀퉁이가 잘려있었는데, 그것은(1700년대의 침대)는 더 짧고 폭이 넓다는 점에서 오늘날의 그것(침대)과는 달랐다 : 사람들이 많은 베게나 받침을 가지고서 반쯤 앉은 자세로 잤기 때문에 그 침대들은 짧았다, 그리고 침대 하나에 3명 이상이 잤으므로 더 넓었다.  린제이-울제이(linsey-woolsey) 이불은, 그것이 제공하는 따뜻함 때문에 미국의 더 추운 지역에서 발견되었다. (그 당시) 중앙난방이 없었고, 대부분의 침실은 벽난로를 가지지 않았었다.

Questions 32-41

함께 빽빽이 밀집해서 자라고, 위쪽을 덮은 가지들을 집단으로 짜 맞추면서, 붉은 오리나무의 한 숲은 거의 모든 다른 것을 배제하고 하나의 지역을 지배한다. salmonberry 와 sword ferns 같은 종들은 하늘을 차단하는 잎들 사이를 통해 얼룩무늬처럼 간간이 들어오는 제한된 햇빛에 적응해왔다, 그러나 거기서 살아남을 수 있는 상록수는 거의 없다 ; 오리나무의 비상한 초기의 성장과 경쟁할 수 있는 것은 더욱더 적다. 미송나무(Douglas fir)는 오리나무보다 10년 후에 그것의 최대 성장 높이에 도달한다. 그리고 그 두 나무가 동시에 자라기 시작한다면, 오리나무가 재빨리 미송나무보다 높이 성장해서 미송나무를 지배하게된다. 오리나무의 차단하는 잎들이 하늘을 덮고 나면, 미송은 성장에 있어서 대단한 감소를 겪게되고, 흔히 몇 년 이내에 죽는다. 미국솔송나무(hemlock)와 같은 그늘을 더 잘 견뎌내는 나무의 종들도 공격적인 젊은 오리나무의 아래서는 심하게 압박을 받게될 수 있다.

대대적인 목재 수확에 종사하는 회사들은, 더 가치 있는 상록수들을 억압하는 오리나무를 당연히 탐탁하지 않게 본다. 그러나 시대는 변한다 ; 새로운 세대의 임업가들은, 오리나무가 행하는 중요한 역할에 대한 고려를, 그들의 관리 계획 속에 포함시킬 준비가 더 잘되어있다.

오리나무의 귀중한 생태학적 공헌들 중에는 질소 부족의 토양에서 질소를 고착시켜주는 그의 능력이다. 오리나무의 뿌리는, 대두(콩)와 같은 콩과식물에서 발견되는 그것(혹 덩어리들)과 비슷한 질소를 고착시키는 혹(덩어리)의 집합체를 포함한다. 게다가, 최근 빙하의 후퇴에 의해서 새로 노출되는, 그리고 오리나무가 심어진 새로이 생겨나는 토양은, 이 나무들이 일년에 한 헥타아르 당 고질소 비료 10 포대에 해당하는 양을 공급해준다는 것을 보여준다. 그들이 자라고 있는 토양에 대한 또 다른 화학적 변화는, 염기성 함량의 하락과 토양 산성도의 상승뿐만 아니라 그 토양에게 충분한 탄소와 칼슘의 첨가 등을 포함한다.

많은 오리나무들이 야생에서 행하는 또 하나의 중요한 역할은, 특히 산악지역에서, 봄에 눈이 녹아 흐를 때 물의 급격한 흐름을 저지하는 것이다. 일본과 다른 여러 지역에서, 이 나무는 가파른 산기슭에서 토양을 안정시키기 위해서 심어진다. 비슷한 이유로, 오리나무는 유럽과 아시아의 폐광, 홍수침수지, 산사태지역 등으로부터 남겨진 쓰레기 물질을 안정화시키고 재활시키기 위해서 심어져왔다.

Questions 42-50

대서양을 건너 새로운 인생을 맞이하면서, 그들의 조상들이 생활에서 지루함을 덜어주었던 오락들을 포기하지 않았다. 신대륙에서 생활의 힘든 것이나 흩어져있는 인구나 성직자들의 불허가 등이  대다수의 사람들로 하여금 오락을 추구하지 못하게 막지는 못했다. 물론, 도시 거주자와 시골거주자들이 이러한 추구를 다른 방식으로 행했다. 멀리 떨어져있는 농부들은 함께 놀 수 있는 친구를 찾는 게 더욱 힘들다는 것을 발견한 것은 물론이고, 그들 작업의 끊임없는 요구와 압력의 덕택에 오락을 목적과 결부시키는 게 필요하다는 것을 느꼈다. 어떤 다른 그룹의 주민들도 □오락이란 어떤 유용한 일을 하는 시간이다.□라는 그 당시의 표현을 그렇게 진지하게 받아들이지는 않았다. 그러므로 시골에서 농부들은 사냥, 낚시, 포획 등과 같은 다목적 오락으로 일상생활의 짐을 덜었다. 이웃사람이 도움을 필요로 할 때 여러 가족들이 수마일 떨어진 곳으로부터 모여들어서, 집이나 헛간을 짓는 일, 옥수수의 껍질을 까는 일, 양털을 깎는 일, 나무를 자르는 일 등등을 도와주었다. 단체 작업 후의 음식과 축하파티가 휴식을 제공하고 피로한 근육을 풀어주었다.

가장 사람들이 간절히 기다리는 사회 행사는 시골의 장터였다. 수백의 남녀노소가 가까이서 그리고 멀리서 참여했다. 남자들은 농장동물을 사고 교역했으며 필요한 상품을 구입하였고, 한편 여자들은 자기들의 부엌에서 만든 음식들을 전시하였고, 젊은이를 포함한 모든 사람들이 다양한 스포츠 시합을 구경하거나 참가했고, 승자들에게는 상이 수여되었다. 전형적으로 이런 행사들은 승마경주, 레슬링 시합, 경보 등은 물론이고 휘파람불기대회같은 운동경기가 아닌 행사도 포함했다. 어떤 다른 행사도 농장생활의 고립을 위로해주기 위해 그렇게 많은 일을 하지는 못했다.

지척에 개방된 시골이 어디든지 있으므로, 도시 거주자들은 자연적으로 그들의 시골 오락에 함께 참여했다. 선호하는 오락들은 낚시, 사냥, 스케이팅, 수영들을 포함했다. 그러나 도시거주자들은 역시 밀집된 마을만이 (그것을) 가능하게 할 수 있는 그런 다른 오락도 개발했다.

Test 10

Questions 1-10

스페인사람들이, 나중에 미국의 남서부가 될 그 지역으로 이사왔던 1500년대에, 그들은, 현재의 Pueblo, Hopi, 그리고 Zuni 부족들의 조상을 만났다. 다양하게 Basket Makers, Anasazi, 또는 Ancient Ones 와 같은 이름으로도 알려져 있었던 이 조상들은 최소한 2,000 년 동안 그 지역에 살아왔었다. 그들은, 그들의 농작물을 재배하는 것을 도와주기 위한 관개시설을 사용했던, 발전된 농업인들이었다.

Anasazi 부족은 진흙벽돌(adobe)과 나무로써 건설된 집에 살았다. Anasazi 의 집들은 원래 구덩이(움푹 파인 지형)에 만들어졌으며 지붕으로부터 출입을 할 수 있었다. 그러나 A.D. 700 년경에 Anasazi 부족은 집을 땅위에 짓고 그들을 함께 연결해서 여기저기 흩어진 여러 층의 복합단지로 만들기 시작했으며, 그것을 스페인 사람들은 pueblos 또는 villages 라고 불렀다. 이 프에블로에 있는 분리된 지하의 방들 □ kiva 또는 chapels 이라고 알려진 □이 종교적인 의식을 위해서 따로 마련되었다. 각각의 kiva는 불피우는 구덩이와 지하세계로 연결된다고 믿어졌던 하나의 구멍을 가졌다. 가장 큰 프에블로는 5 층과 800 개 이상의 방을 가졌다. Anasazi 의 가족들은 모계사회였는데, 즉 여자 쪽을 통해서 후손이 연결되었다.

가족의 신성한 물건은 나이 많은 여자에 의해서 관리되었다. 그러나 실제의 의식은 그녀의 남자형제나 아들에 의해서 행해졌다. 여자들은 프에블로에 있는 방들을 소유했고, 일단 곡식이 추수된 후에는 곡식도 소유했다. 아직 자라고 있는 동안에는 곡식이 남자들에게 속했는데, 다른 미국 원주민 부족들과는 대조적으로 그들(남자들)이 곡식을 심었다. 여자들은 바구니와 도자기를 만들었고, 남자들은 직물을 짜고 터코이스 보석류를 세공했다.

각 마을은 2명의 추장을 가졌다. 마을추장은 토지 분쟁과 종교문제를 다루었다. 전쟁추장은, 이웃마을과의 사이에서 때때로 발생하는 갈등의 기간동안 전투에서 남자들을 인도하고, 마을 건설 작업에서 남자들을 감독했다. Anasazi 부족의 응집력있는 정치적 그리고 사회적 조직은 다른 부족들이 그들을 정복하는 것을 거의 불가능하게 만들었다.

Questions 11-20

1867년 미국에서 처음으로 특허를 받은 □철조망(barbed wire)□은, 그것이 정착자들로 하여금 그들의 땅을 에워쌀 효과적인 울타리 만들고 가축들을 농작물에 접근하지 못하게 막도록 해주었기 때문에, 미국 농업의 발달에 있어서 중요한 역할을 했다. 이것은 목축업에 대단한 영향을 끼쳤다, 왜냐하면, 가축들이 더 이상 방목을 위해서 평원을 제한 받지 않고 함부로 사용할 수 없게 되었고, 또한 울타리는 농부와 목축업자들 사이에 갈등을 야기시켰기 때문이다.

철조망이 일반적으로(널리) 사용되기 전에는, 톱니형 철사가 흔히 사용되었는데, 그것은 장력을 받을 때는 쉽게 망가져서 불만족스러웠고, 추운 날씨에는 수축으로 인해서 끊어질 수가 있었다. 철조망을 생산하기 위한 첫 번째의 실용적인 기계는 1874년에 일리노이의 한 농부에 의해서 발명되었고, 그때부터 19 세기말까지 약 400 종류의 철조망이 고안되었는데, 그 중에서 단지 12가지 정도만이 단 한번이라도 실제로 사용되었다.

현대의 철조망은, 일반강철, 고장력 강철, 또는 알루미늄으로 만들어진다. 일반강철이나 알루미늄으로 만든 철조망은 두 개의 가닥을 꼬아서, 한 가닥의 철사보다 강하고 온도변화에도 영향을 덜 받는 하나의 케이블을 만든다. (단면이) 원형이나 타원형인, 한 가닥 짜리 철조망은 고장력 강철로부터 만들어지는데, 가시가 구부려서 끼워지거나 용접이 되어 붙여진다. 사용되는 강철 철사는 아연도금(galvanize)이 되는데, 즉, 녹스는 것을 방지하기 위해 아연이 입혀진다. 철조망 줄 또는 케이블을 구성하게 되는 두 개의 철사줄은 같은 쪽에서 각각 따로 기계 속으로 들어간다. 그들은 함께 꼬이고 가시가 부착된 채로 반대쪽 끝에서 그 기계를 떠난다. 가시를 만들 철사는 기계의 옆쪽으로부터 기계로 들어가는데. 날카로운 끝 부분을 만들기 위해 철사를 대각선으로 자르는 칼에 의해서 길이에 맞게 잘라진다. 이 과정들이 자동적으로 계속되며, 완성된 철조망 선은, 길이 400미터 단위로, 또는 무게로 봐서 50 kg까지의 단위로, 주로 철사로 만들어진 원통형에 감긴다.

하나의 변형된 형태의 철조망이 군사적 목적으로 사용된다. 그것은 concertina wire 라고 불리는 긴 코일 형태나 불규칙적으로 엉켜있는 모양으로 만들어진다.

Questions 21-29

어떤 상황하에서 인간의 신체는 정상보다 높은 기압의 기체들에 대처해야만 한다. 예를들어, 스쿠버 장비를 가지고 행해지는 다이빙동안에는 기체의 압력이 급격히 증가한다, 왜냐하면 호흡장비가 다이버들로 하여금 물 속에 오래 머물러있도록 하며 다이버들로 하여금 더 깊이 다이빙할 수 있도록 해주기 때문이다. 인간의 신체에 가해지는 압력은 바닷물의 매 10미터 깊이 당 1기압씩 증가한다. 그래서 바닷물 30미터 깊이에서 다이버는 약 4기압의 압력에 노출된다. 호흡되고있는 기체의 압력은 신체에 가해지는 외부의 압력과 같아야한다 ; 그렇지 않으면 호흡이 매우 곤란해진다. 그러므로 수중 40미터에서 스쿠버다이버에 의해서 호흡되는 공기중의 모든 기체는 그들의 평상시 압력의 5배의 압력으로 존재하게된다. 우리가 호흡하고있는 공기의 80%를 구성하고있는 질소는 이 압력 하에서 편안함을 가진 느긋한 느낌을 발생시킨다. 5 기압의 깊이에서 질소는 질소마취상태(nitrogen narcosis)라고 알려져 있는 마치 술에 취한 것과 비슷한 증상을 발생시킨다. 질소마취상태는, 겉으로 보기에, 혈액 속에 용해된 많은 양의 질소가 두뇌에 영향을 끼침으로서 야기되는 것으로 보여진다. 만약 질소가 헬륨으로 대치된다면 깊은 다이빙은 덜 위험하다, 왜냐하면 이런 압력에서 헬륨은 유사한 마취효과를 유발시키지 않기 때문이다.

스쿠버다이버가 하강함에 따라서 허파 내의 질소의 압력은 증가한다. 그 다음에 질소는 허파로부터 혈액으로 확산된다(이동한다). 그리고는 다시 혈액으로부터 신체 각 조직으로 간다. 다이버가 물 표면으로 올라갈 때 반대의 과정이 발생한다. 허파 속의 질소의 압력은 떨어지고, 질소는 신체 조직으로부터 혈액으로, 그리고 다시 혈액으로부터 허파로 확산된다(이동한다). 만약 물 표면으로 올라오는 것이 너무 급격하면, 신체 조직과 혈액에 있는 질소는 충분히 빨리 확산(이동)하지 못해서 질소 거품(방울)이 형성된다. 이 거품(방울)들이 심한 고통을 일으킬 수 있는데, 특히 관절부위에 더 그렇다.

상승동안에 호흡이 정지되면 또 다른 문제가 발생할 수 있다. 10 미터의 깊이로부터 상승하는 동안에 허파에 있는 공기의 부피는 2배로 증가한다, 왜냐하면 표면에서의 공기압력은 10 미터의 깊이에서보다 단지 반밖에 되지 않기 때문이다. 이러한 부피에서의 증가는 허파를 팽창하게 만들고 또는 파열되게 만들 수도 있다. 이러한 상태가 공기 색전증(air embolism)이라고 불린다. 이러한 사건을 피하기 위해서 다이버는 천천히 상승해야하는데, 호흡하면서 내 쉰 공기 방울들이 상승하는 속도보다 초과하는 속도로 상승해서는 절대로 안되며, 상승하는 동안에 호흡을 내 쉬어야한다.

Questions 30-39

현미경 기술에 있어서 각각의 발전은 과학자들에게, 살아있는 유기체들의 기능과 물질 자체의 본질에 관한 새로운 관점을 제공했다. 16세기 말 가시광선현미경(광학현미경)의 발명은 전에는 알려지지 않았던 단세포 동식물의 새로운 영역을 소개해주었다. 20 세기에 전자현미경은 바이러스와 작은 표면 구조들의 직접적인 모습을 제공했다. 이제 또 한가지 형태의 현미경, 즉 빛이나 전자보다는 오히려 X선을 사용하는 현미경이 작은 미세 부분을 검사하는 다른 방식을 제공한다 ; 그것은 인간의 지각을 자연의 세계로 훨씬 더 멀리까지 확장시킬 것이다.

x-ray 현미경을 만들려는 꿈은 1895년까지 거슬러 올라간다. 그러나 1940년에 그것의 개발은, 전자 현미경의 개발이 급속도로 진전되고있었기 때문에, 사실상 정지되었다. 1940년대에 일률적으로 전자현미경은 광학현미경으로써 가능한 그것보다 훨씬 더 좋은 해상도를 얻었고, 한편으로 x-ray 현미경의 성과는 개발을 저지했다.(성과가 좋지 않아서 사람들이 개발을 관뒀다.) 그러나 최근에 와서 x-ray 현미경에 관한 관심이 부활되었는데, 그 이유는 주로, 새로운 x-ray 조명의 근원의 개발과 같은 발전 때문이었다. 결과적으로 오늘날 얻을 수 있는 밝기는, 20세기 대부분에 걸쳐서 soft x-ray의 유일한 근원이었던 x-ray tube의 밝기의 수백만 배에 달한다.

그 새로운 x-ray 현미경들은 광학현미경에 의해서 제공되는 해상도를 대단히 향상시킨다. 그들은 어떤 화학 원소들의 분포를 도표로 만드는데도 역시 사용된다. 어떤 것들은 극히 짧은 시간에 사진을 만들어낼 수도 있고 ; 또 어떤 것들은 3차원영상과 같은 특별한 능력에 대해 강한 가능성을 가지고있다. 종래의 전자현미경과는 달리, x-ray 현미경은 표본을 공중에 또는 물 속에 그대로 유지될 수 있도록 해주는데, 그것은 생물학적 샘플들이 그들이 자연 상태와 비슷한 조건하에서 연구될 수 있다는 것을 의미한다. 사용되는 조명은, 20-40 옹스트럼(1 미터의 백억 분의 일)의 파장 범위에서 소위 말하는 soft x-ray인데, 이것은 많은 경우에서 원상태의 생물세포를 촬영할 정도로 충분히 투과성이 있다. 사용되는 x-ray의 파장 때문에 soft x-ray 현미경은 전자현미경으로 가능한 최대의 해상도와는 결코 상대가 될 수 없다. 그러나 그 대신에, 그들의 특별한 특성들이, 빛을 토대로 한 도구(광학현미경)나 전자를 토대로 한 도구(전자현미경)를 가지고서 행해질 수 있는 조사들을 보완하는, 그러한 조사들을 가능하게 해준다.

Questions 40-50

풍자문학의 가장 강한 특징은 아마도 그것의 신선함, 즉 (사물을 보는)관점의 독창성일 것이다. 풍자가 독창적인 아이디어를 제공하는 경우는 드물다. 대신에 풍자는 이미 친숙한 사물을 새로운 형태로 제시한다. 풍자가들이 세상에 새로운 철학을 제공하는 것은 아니다. 그들이 하는 일은, 어떤 친숙한 상황들을 어리석거나 해롭거나 잘못된 것으로 보이도록 만드는, 그러한 관점에서 이 친숙한 상황들을 보는 것이다. 풍자는 거슬리는 말로써 우리를 만족한 상태로부터 나오게 해서, 우리가 의문을 제기하지 않고 당연하게 받아들이고 있는 많은 가치관들이 잘못된 것이라는 어떤 깨달음, 즉 즐겁게 충격을 주는 깨달음으로 가게 만든다. Don Quixote 는 기사도를 어리석게 보이도록 만들고 ; Brave New World 는 과학의 가식을 조롱하며 ; Modest Proposal 은 □식인□을 옹호함으로써 기아를 극화하고 있다. 이 아이디어들 중에 어느 것도 독창적인 것은 없다. Cervantes 의 이전에도 기사도는 의심받았었고, Aldous Huxley 이전에도 인도주의자들은 순수과학의 주장에 반대했었고, Swift 이전에도 사람들은 기근을 의식했었다. 이러한 풍자들을 인기 있게 만든 것은 아이디어의 독창성이 아니다. 그들을 흥미있고 재미있게 만든 것은 표현방식, 즉 그 풍자적인 방법이다. 풍자작품들은, 그들이 도덕적으로 건전하다든가 윤리적으로 교훈적이기 때문이 아니라, 그들이 미적으로 만족스러운 예술작품이기 때문에 읽히는 것이다. 그들은 자극적이고 신선하다, 왜냐하면 상식적인(보통의) 활기를 가지고서 그들은 망상과 간접적인 견해를 씻어버리기 때문이다. 저절로 우러나오는 불경함을 가지고, 풍자는 (사물을 보는)관점을 재정리하고, 친숙한 사물들을 뒤죽박죽 섞어서 조화되지 않는 병렬관계로 만들고, 추상적 진부함 대신에 개인적인 용어들을 사용하여 이야기한다.

풍자는 그것에 대한 필요(수요)가 있기 때문에 존재하는 것이다. 독자들이 신선한 자극, □ 자신들이 진부한 사고와 값싼 도덕과 바보스러운 철학의 세상에 살고있다는 것을 상기해주는 불경스러운 말 □을 인정해주기 때문에, 풍자는 여태까지 살아온 것이다. 풍자는 사람들을 자극해서 진실을 깨닫도록 한다, 비록 진실을 대표해서 어떤 행동에 이르게까지 하는 경우는 적지만.

풍자는, 자신들이 대중매체로부터 보고 듣고 읽는 많은 것이 가식적으로 경건한 것이고, 감상에 젖은 것이고, 부분적으로만 옳은 것이라는 사실을 사람들에게 상기시켜주는 경향이 있다. 인생은, 인생에 대한 대중적인 이미지와 아주 적은 정도까지만 비슷하다. 군인은, 영화가 그들에게 부여하는 이상들을 실제로 가지고 있는 경우는 거의 없으며, (영화에서는 군인이 항상 용감하고 총을 맞아도 계속 싸우는 것과 같이, 이상적인 모습을 보여주지만), 일반 시민들이 인도주의의 이타적 봉사에 자신을 헌신하지도 않는다. 지성인들은 이러한 것들을 알고있지만, 이것들이 표현되는 것을 듣고있지 않을 때는 그것들을 잊어버리는 경향이 있다.

해답 answers

Test 1

1. A     2. C     3. B    4. A    5. D     6. D     7. B     8. B      9. D    10. A

11. D   12. C    13. C   14. C   15. B    16. B    17. D   18. B     19. B    20. C

21. B   22. B    23. C   24. B   25. B    26. C    27. A    28. D     29. D   30. A

31. A   32. A    33. B   34. A   35. B    36. D    37. B    38. A     39. C    40. A

41. A   42. B    43. A   44. B   45. D    46. B    47. D    48. D     49. B    50. D

Test 2

1.  D     2. C      3. A     4. D     5. A      6. D     7. C      8. B     9. A    10. D

11. B    12. B     13. D    14. D    15. B    16. B     17. A     18. C   19. C    20. D

21. A    22. D     23. B     24. C   25. D    26. A     27. C    28. B    29. D    30. B

31. C    32. C    33. C     34. D    35. B    36. A     37. A    38. B    39. A    40. C

41. C    42. B    43. A     44. C    45. D    46. D     47. D    48. A    49. D    50. C

Test 3

1. B      2. C      3. C     4. C     5. D     6. B      7. A     8. D      9. A    10. D

11. C    12. A     13. D    14. C    15. C    16. B     17. D   18. B     19. D    20. A

21. B    22. B     23. B    24. C    25. C    26. A     27. D    28. D    29. A    30. D

31. D    32. D     33. A    34. A    35. A    36. C      37. C    38. D    39. A    40. B

41. D    42. C      43. B    44. B     45. C    46. B      47. D    48. D    49. A    50. C

Test 4

1. B     2. C     3. D    4. C     5. B     6. C     7. B     8. A     9. C      10. B

11. C   12. D    13. D   14. D    15. C    16. C    17. A    18. B    19. B     20. A

21. C   22. D    23. B    24. C    25. A    26. D    27. A   28. B     29. A    30. C

31. D   32. B    33. A    34. B    35. B    36. C     37. C   38. A    39. A    40. B

41. B   42. B    43. B    44. A    45. B     46. C    47. A    48. A   49. C    50. C

Test 5

1.  B       2. C     3. A     4. B      5. D     6. B     7. C     8. C    9. D     10. B

11. C      12. B    13. B    14. B     15. C    16. D   17. D    18. A   19. C     20. B

21. B      22. A    23. D    24. C     25. D    26. A   27. B    28. A    29. A    30. C

31. B      32. C    33. A    34. B     35  A    36. B   37. A    38. B    39. C    40.  D

41. A      42. A    43. C    44. B     45. C    46. C   47. A    48. D    49. B    50. A

Test 6

1. C       2. D     3. B       4.  B     5. D      6. C      7. B      8. A       9. C     10. D

11. C     12. B     13. A      14. C     15. D     16. A     17. D    18. A     19. B     20. A

21. B     22. D     23. A      24. D     25. A     26. C     27. D    28. C     29. A     30. B

31. D     32. A     33. D      34. C     35. D     36. B     37. B    38. D     39. D     40. A

41. B     42. B      43. D      44. B     45. A     46. D     47. D    48. A     49. B     50. C

Test 7

1. B     2. A      3. B        4. B      5. D       6. C      7. B     8. C       9. C     10. D

11. B    12. B     13. A      14. C     15. C     16. D     17. B    18. C      19. D     20. A

21. B    22. B     23. A      24. B     25. D     26. D     27. C    28. B      29. A     30. C

31. A    32. C     33. B      34. D     35. A     36. A     37. D    38. A      39. B     40. C

41. D    42. B     43. C      44. A     45. A     46. B     47. D    48. C      49. A     50. D

Test 8

1. A      2. B        3. A       4. D      5. B      6. A      7. D     8. A     9. B     10. B

11. D    12. B      13. C      14. D     15. B     16. B     17. A    18. D    19. C     20 D

21. C    22. B      23. C      24. D     25. B     26. D     27. A    28. D    29. D     30. C

31. C    32. B      33. D      34. D     35. A     36. A     37. A    38. D    39. B     40. C

41. D    42. A      43. D      44. B     45. B     46. B     47. B    48. C    49. D     50. D

Test 9

1. A       2. A     3. C      4. B      5. A      6. C      7. C     8. B      9. B    10. A

11. A     12. A    13. C     14. A     15. C     16. A     17. C    18. B    19. A    20. B

21. A     22. B    23. A     24. A     25. C     26. C     27. D    28. A    29. C    30. A

31. A     32. D    33. C     34. B     35. B     36. D     37. B    38. B    39. D    40. A

41. A     42. D    43. A     44. C     45. C     46. B     47. B    48. D    49. C    50. B

Test 10

1.  A     2. C      3. D    4. C     5. D     6. B     7. B     8. A     9. A     10. C

11. B    12. D     13. D   14. B    15. A    16. A    17. D    18. C    19. D    20. A

21. B    22. D     23. A   24. D    25. A    26. C    27. C    28. D    29. A    30. C

31. D    32. D     33. A   34. B    35. B    36. D    37. D    38. B    39. C    40. D

41. B    42. A     43. A   44. B    45. C    46. D    47. A    48. D    49. D    50. B